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Denmark–United Kingdom relations

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Denmark-United Kingdom relations
Map indicating locations of Denmark and United Kingdom

Denmark
United Kingdom

Denmark–United Kingdom relations are foreign, economic, diplomatic, and historical relations between the Kingdom of Denmark and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, the European Court of Human Rights, the International Criminal Court, the Joint Expeditionary Force, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,[1] and a Voting Participation Agreement.[2] In addition, both countries' royal families are descended from the House of Glücksburg.

History

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Middle Ages

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Main article: Danelaw
North Sea Empire (1013–1042)

During the Migration Period, the Angles and Jutes migrated from areas in present-day Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein to the British Isles in the 5th century AD. In the late 9th century, Danish Vikings conquered and settled large parts of northern and eastern England (the so-called Danelaw) and left behind many permanent traces of settlement. In the early 11th century, the Danish king Cnut the Great established a “North Sea Empire” by ruling over a united kingdom as king of England, Denmark, and Norway.[3] After the end of Danish rule in England (1042), relations gradually normalized and shifted to trade and dynastic ties. In 1472, the Parliament of Scotland absorbed the Lordship of Shetland into the Kingdom of Scotland, following the failure to pay a dowry promised to James III of Scotland by the family of his bride, Margaret of Denmark [4] Official diplomatic contacts were documented in the late Middle Ages; in 1401, for example, Queen Margaret I of Denmark sent a letter to King Henry IV of England.[5] Early economic ties between the two empires also existed via trade routes across the Baltic and North Sea (e.g., as part of the Hanseatic League).

Early modern period

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Political and family ties intensified in the early modern period. Both countries underwent the Reformation in the 16th century (England became Anglican, Denmark Lutheran) and at times maintained alliances on a Protestant basis. In 1589, King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) married Princess Anne of Denmark, which strengthened the dynastic ties.[3] In the 17th century, there were mutual embassies and coalitions, for example in the Thirty Years' War, when Denmark and England pursued Protestant interests on the European continent. During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Great Britain (in personal union with Hanover) and Denmark fought at times as allies against the supremacy of Sweden in the Baltic Sea region. In 1715, Great Britain supported Denmark's claims to Schleswig with diplomatic guarantees, and in 1727 Denmark joined the Hanoverian alliance led by Great Britain. To strengthen relations, the British princess Louise (daughter of King George II) was married to the Danish crown prince (later King Frederick V) in 1743. In the second half of the 18th century, Denmark pursued a strict policy of neutrality in European conflicts. However, this Danish neutrality led to growing tensions with the British towards the end of the century.[6]

Gunboat War

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Main article: Gunboat War
The Battle of Copenhagen, 1801

Peace between Denmark and Great Britain was interrupted during the Napoleonic Wars. Denmark's participation in the anti-British Second League of Armed Neutrality worsened Anglo-Danish relations, and in 1801 a British fleet under Admiral Hyde Parker was sent to Copenhagen where it defeated the Danish navy; Denmark left the league after learning Paul I of Russia had died. Denmark nonetheless managed to remain uninvolved in the Napoleonic Wars until 1807. The British, who feared Denmark would ally with France, sent a fleet to Copenhagen; after the Danes refused to negotiate, the fleet bombarded Copenhagen and captured the entire Danish fleet so that it couldn't be used by France to invade Britain (as the French had lost their own fleet at Trafalgar in 1805), leading to the Gunboat War. The British navy began a blockade of the Danish and Norwegian coasts.[citation needed]

In 1809, Danish forces fighting on the French side participated in defeating the anti-Bonapartist German rebellion led by Ferdinand von Schill, at the Battle of Stralsund. By 1813, Denmark could no longer bear the war costs, and the state was bankrupt. When in the same year the Sixth Coalition isolated Denmark by clearing Northern Germany of French forces, Frederick VI had to make peace. Accordingly, the unfavourable Treaty of Kiel was concluded in January 1814 with Sweden and Great Britain, and another peace was signed with Russia in February.[citation needed]

The Treaty of Kiel transferred Heligoland to Great Britain and Norway from the Danish to the Swedish crown, Denmark was to be satisfied with Swedish Pomerania. But the Norwegians revolted, declared their independence, and elected crown-prince Christian Frederick (the future Christian VIII) as their king. However, the Norwegian independence movement failed to attract any support from the European powers. After a brief war with Sweden, Christian had to abdicate in order to preserve Norwegian autonomy, established in a personal union with Sweden. In favour of the Kingdom of Prussia, Denmark renounced her claims to Swedish Pomerania at the Congress of Vienna (1815), and instead was satisfied with the Duchy of Lauenburg and a Prussian payment of 3.5 million talers, also, Prussia took over a Danish 600,000 talers debt to Sweden.

After these events, relations improved throughout the rest of the 19th century. In 1863, Danish Princess Alexandra married the British heir to the throne (later King Edward VII), which deepened the family ties between the royal houses. During the German-Danish War of 1864, Great Britain tried in vain to mediate; ultimately, Denmark was forced to cede the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia and Austria.[7]

World wars

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Denmark remained neutral when Great Britain fought on the side of the Triple Entente against the Central Powers in World War I. After the war, British diplomats supported the 1920 referendum that returned North Schleswig (Sønderjylland) to Denmark. In World War II, Denmark was occupied by Germany in 1940, with the Danish government-in-exile finding refuge in London. To prevent a German takeover, British forces occupied the Danish Faroe Islands in April 1940[8] and Iceland, which was also Danish at the time,[9] in May, promising to protect them until Denmark was liberated. On May 4, 1945, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery announced the surrender of German troops in Denmark. The following day, British units entered Copenhagen to cheering crowds, ending five years of occupation.[10]

After 1945

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Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen with British Prime Minister Keir Starmer in 10 Downing Street, February 2025.

After 1945, British-Danish relations developed within a framework of partnership based on mutual alliances. Both countries were founding members of NATO in 1949 and worked closely together in the Western Alliance during the Cold War. Denmark joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) together with the United Kingdom in 1960. In 1973, Denmark and the United Kingdom jointly joined the European Community (EC).[11] In the decades that followed, both countries were seen as pro-Atlanticism and Eurosceptic; they often pushed for cautious integration and transatlantic cooperation within the EU. Like the UK, Denmark had a lot of reservations about deepening the EU and got opt-outs (for example, from the monetary union). London and Copenhagen worked closely together on security issues. Denmark participated alongside the UK in several international military missions, such as the Kosovo War in the 1990s and the War on Terror. In particular, Denmark supported the US- and UK-led coalition of the willing in 2003 and sent a frigate, a submarine, and around 400 soldiers to the Iraq War. Denmark noted with regret the Brexit referendum in 2016 and the subsequent withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the EU in 2020, as it meant that an important partner was leaving the EU.

The 2021 Baltic Sea incident was between British and Danish boats.[12]

In June 2023, the foreign ministers of both countries signed a joint declaration in London to further expand cooperation after Brexit. This agreement provides for a deepening of the partnership in areas such as foreign and security policy, economics, science and technology, migration, and the energy transition.[13]

Economic relations

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Economically, the United Kingdom and Denmark have been closely intertwined since the 19th century. By 1900, Great Britain was already one of the most important markets for Danish agriculture: around 90% of Danish meat exports (mainly ham and bacon) went to Great Britain at that time, accounting for around a fifth of total Danish exports. Danish butter and "Danish bacon" gained such a good reputation in the United Kingdom that they maintained a significant market share well into the 20th century.[14] Since joining the European Single Market in 1960, economic relations have deepened and diversified even further. The UK has become one of Denmark's largest export markets (ranked fourth in 2021 with a share of approximately 6% of Danish exports).[15] Conversely, Denmark is only a medium-sized trading partner for the much larger United Kingdom, but is one of the most important Nordic supplier countries there (ranked 23rd in British foreign trade, accounting for around 1% of total UK trade volume in 2024).[16]

Both countries also invest heavily in each other – there are numerous British company branches in Denmark and vice versa. Denmark and the United Kingdom work closely together in the energy sector: Danish companies are playing a leading role in the expansion of British offshore wind (for example, the Danish company Ørsted supplies electricity to millions of British households with the Hornsea 2 offshore wind farm in the North Sea).[3]

Cultural relations

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The historical and cultural ties between the British and Danish people are manifold. Both monarchies are linked by several dynastic marriages and originate from the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, which is why the royal families of both countries still maintain close relations today. There is a mutual presence of expat communities in both countries, which contributes to cultural exchange: an estimated 30,000 Danish citizens live in the United Kingdom, while around 19,000 Britons reside in Denmark.[17][18] Denmark is one of the countries with the highest level of English proficiency, which facilitates the reception of British culture—British music, literature, and media have a broad following in Denmark. At the same time, Danish culture and lifestyle are attracting interest in the United Kingdom: in the 2010s, the Danish concept of hygge (cosiness) also gained popularity in Great Britain, and Danish companies expanded into the British market with design, gastronomy and fashion. London is home to Danish bakery chains and annual cultural festivals showcasing Danish cuisine and traditions.[3] There are also close ties in sports—especially in association football, where several Danish football players (e.g., Christian Eriksen and Rasmus Højlund) have played in England, and English football is very popular in Denmark.

Security cooperation

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Danish forces fought alongside British forces in operations in Iraq and they continued this cooperation in Afghanistan. Denmark and United Kingdom work closely together on counter-terrorism issues.[19]

Fishing

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In 1961, a maritime dispute over fishing rights off the Faroe Islands, led to the Red Crusader incident.[20][21]

State visits

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Queen Margrethe II of Denmark paid state visits to the United Kingdom in April/May 1974, and in February 2000.[22] Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Denmark in May 1957, and in May 1979.[23]

On 19 August 2010, Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen visited London, to meet British Prime Minister David Cameron.[24] On 1 October 2022, British Prime Minister Liz Truss welcomed Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen to 10 Downing Street. [25]

Resident diplomatic missions

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  • Denmark maintains an embassy in London.[26]
  • The United Kingdom is accredited to Denmark through its embassy in Copenhagen.[27]
  • Embassy of Denmark in London
    Embassy of Denmark in London

See also

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Notes and references

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  1. ^ HM Revenue & Customs (1 March 2011). "Denmark: tax treaties". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 8 April 2025. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
  2. ^ Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (8 February 2024). "UK and Denmark establish voting rights treaty". GOV.UK (Press release). Archived from the original on 21 April 2025. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
  3. ^ a b c d "From King Canute to Hygge: UK-Danish relations go back centuries". commentcentral.co.uk. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  4. ^ "On this day 1472: Orkney and Shetland join Scotland". The Scotsman. 20 February 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  5. ^ Royal and Historical Letters
  6. ^ "Anglo-Danish Relations (1714-1782) | Michael Bregnsbo | Gale". www.gale.com. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  7. ^ "Danish-German War | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  8. ^ Biggs, Si (13 April 2022). "Operation Valentine - Occupation of the Faroe Islands". RoyalMarinesHistory. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  9. ^ Bittner, Donald F. (1 December 1975). "A Final Appraisal of the British Occupation of Iceland, 1940–42". The RUSI Journal. 120 (4): 45–53. doi:10.1080/03071847509421214. ISSN 0307-1847.
  10. ^ "How Denmark was liberated at the end of World War II". The Local Denmark. 4 May 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  11. ^ "The European Free Trade Association and ETIAS". etias.com. Archived from the original on 3 November 2024. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  12. ^ "Two detained after UK boat's fatal collision off Sweden". BBC News. 13 December 2021. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  13. ^ "UK and Denmark commit to closer ties on foreign policy, trade and security". GOV.UK. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  14. ^ "Where To Buy Danish Bacon". sites.google.com. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  15. ^ "Trade and economic key figures". storbritannien.um.dk. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  16. ^ Denmark Trade and Investment Factsheet
  17. ^ Kvist, Else (12 June 2024). "Danes Living in the UK Effectively Shut Out from Voting in EU Elections". International Policy Digest. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  18. ^ "Map: Where do Denmark-based Brits live, and how many have become Danish citizens?". The Local Denmark. 28 February 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2025.
  19. ^ "Denmark and the UK - GOV.UK". ukindenmark.fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  20. ^ Jacobsen, Ulrik (29 April 2021). "Red Crusader-sagen". Den Store Danske Encyklopædi (in Danish). Archived from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
  21. ^ Oyarce, Ximena Hinrichs (June 2007). "Red Crusader Incident (1961)". Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
  22. ^ "Ceremonies: State visits". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 6 November 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
  23. ^ "OUTWARD STATE VISITS MADE BY THE QUEEN SINCE 1952". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
  24. ^ "Løkke and Cameron". Venstre.dk. Archived from the original on 20 August 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  25. ^ "PM meeting with Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen: 1 October 2022". GOV.UK. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  26. ^ Diplomat Magazine (7 July 2021). "Denmark". Diplomat Magazine. Archived from the original on 13 May 2025. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
  27. ^ "British Embassy Copenhagen". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 26 September 2024. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
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