When the shepherd lost his sheep

When the shepherd lost his sheep
Romanian shepherd with fluier and flock of sheep Photo Emil Fischer, 1930
Original title	Romanian: Când și-a pierdut ciobanul oile
Country	Romania, Moldova

When the shepherd lost his sheep (Romanian: Când și-a pierdut ciobanul oile) is an archaic musical folk poem rooted in pastoral and ritual traditions, widespread throughout the Romanian cultural area.

The piece tells the story of a shepherd who has lost his flock and sets out in search of it. Its musical structure is based on a contrast between two episodes: a slow, lyrical part (a doina), expressing the sorrow of loss, and a lively dance melody, symbolizing the joy of hope in finding the flock or, in some versions, its actual return.

The poem is usually performed solo, mainly by male shepherds, in a vocal-instrumental form. The primary instrument used is the fluier – a Romanian shepherd’s flute regarded as a symbol of pastoral culture. Some variants include elements of heterophony, in which the flute’s sound is combined with simultaneously produced guttural overtones.

Alongside the ballad Miorița the poem is considered an important element of Romanian folklore, reflecting the spiritual and musical-poetic structure of the so-called Mioritic space – a symbolic landscape of the Romanian worldview.

Due to the decline of the traditional pastoral lifestyle, When the shepherd lost his sheep has largely disappeared from contemporary folk practice.

The poem within the pastoral folk tradition

Romanian pastoral folklore includes a wide range of utilitarian melodies that accompany the daily life of shepherds. A significant role is played by signal tunes, performed on instruments such as the fluier or the bucium. These melodies mark different actions or states of the flock – for example: "Când mulge oile" (When the sheep are milked), "A cașului" (During the making of caș)… There are also so-called "road melodies" that accompany the seasonal movement of flocks between summer and winter pastures, such as "Pornirea" (The departure), "Când urcă oile la munte" (When the sheep go up the mountain). Other tunes serve to gather a scattered flock, including: "Adunatul oilor la stână" (Gathering the sheep at the sheepfold), "Când adună oile de pe munte" (When gathering the sheep from the mountain).

Alongside utilitarian genres, the pastoral repertoire features more elaborate forms such as colinde (ritual carols), ballads, and dance melodies, all unified by the common theme of shepherding life.

The poem When the shepherd lost his sheep holds a distinct place at the intersection of these traditions. It combines narrative structure, musical expression, ritual significance, and dramatic progression – marking a shift from purely functional music to an artistic folk form.

History

References to this archaic musical and poetic composition, associated with the Romanian pastoral tradition, date back to the 16th century. The Hungarian poet Bálint Balassi, in one of his poems, describes a song of a "Romanian shepherdess mourning her lost sheep."

Similar musical themes were noted in the 16th century in a description of the entourage of Mihnea III and during the triumphal entry of Michael the Brave into Alba Iulia (1599).

The Romanian historian Gheorghe Șincai recounts a similar episode in his Chronicle of the Romanians, mentioning that in 1659, "music was performed of a Romanian girl who had lost her goats and was searching for them tearfully in the mountains."

In 1846, the Moldavian writer Alecu Russo, while in exile at the Soveja Monastery, documented one of the earliest known narrative variants of the theme of a lost flock. During this time, he also recorded the text of the now-famous ballad Miorița for the first time."

Field recordings and ethnographic research

In the early 20th century, the Hungarian composer and ethnographer Béla Bartók documented interest in the musical aspect of the poem:

I was played a doina on the violin and fluier called "When the shepherd lost his sheep". It is a melody performed slowly and in a free rhythm (rubato), which is sometimes extended by attaching another dance melody – "When he found them" – performed at a livelier tempo and with a clear meter. Songs of this kind are common in all the regions I have had the chance to visit and likely represent a Romanian specialty.

Bartók recorded and transcribed several versions of the piece in different regions of Romania.

In the 1930s, Romanian ethnomusicologist Constantin Brăiloiu documented several instrumental performances, such as:

External videos
Field recordings
Alexandru Găină (trișcă)
Neculai Taftă (caval), 1956
Silvestru Lungoci (fluier mare), 1974
Ilie Cazacu (fluier), 1936
Ilie Cazacu (fluier), 1965
Ion Papuc (cimpoi, fluier, voce), 1932
Aurel Amarandei (tilincă), 1981
Procopie Bogos, 1986
Mihai Moldovan (birch bark), 2016
Taraful din Dobrotești, 1994
Trei parale, 2015
Михайло Тимофіїв, 1987
Zágor Aladár "Pici”, 1932

• Când și-a pierdut ciobanul oile, performed on cimpoi and fluier by Ion Papuc (1932, Buzău County, Muntenia).
• Când și-a pierdut ciobanul oile, performed on fluier by Ilie Cazacu (1936, Suceava County, Bukovina).

Ilie Cazacu's version was later re-recorded in 1965, and in 1974 by his successor Silvestru Lungoci.

The Romanian-German ethnographer Gottfried Habenicht published transcriptions of field recordings of different types of the piece in the appendix to a 1968 article:

• The colinda "Horia caprelor" (1947; Maramureș), performed by Paul M. Roman;
• The instrumental piece A ciobanului când și-a pierdut oile (1960, Sibiu County, Transylvania), performed by Niculae Bratu).
• The lăutărească ballad Ciobanu când a chierdut oile (1961, Dolj County, Oltenia) performed on violin by Lache Găzaru, a renowned lăutar.

In northern Bukovina, Moldovan ethnographer Vasile Chiseliță recorded a version titled "Doina oilor", performed on violin by Gheorghe Tochită (Krasnoilsk).

In 1990, a double vinyl release by the Soviet Melodiya record label included a version of When the shepherd lost his sheep performed by Procopie Bogos (Buţeni, Moldova), on a piece of birch bark. The recording was made by Moldovan ethnographers in 1986.

Another variant of the lăutărească ballad was recorded in 1994 by Speranța Rădulescu as part of the Ethnophonie project. The performance was given by a taraf from Dobrotești (Teleorman, Muntenia) ).

Among recent examples of authentic performance is a televised appearance by Transylvanian shepherd Mihai Moldovan in 2016.

In 2015, the Romanian group Trei Parale, known for its work in the reconstruction of traditional music, released an album titled Ciobanul care și-a pierdut oile, featuring a modern interpretation of the poem.

Plot and interpretations

At the heart of the narrative is the figure of a shepherd who has lost his flock. Depending on the version, the sheep disappear mysteriously or are stolen. The shepherd believes he sees his flock in the distance, but hope proves illusory: he is deceived by white stones or swaying feather grass, mistaken for sheep.

The musical narrative reveals feelings of sorrow, solitude, introspection, and despair. The protagonist may engage in a symbolic dialogue with nature, animals, God, or with himself. Some variants introduce more explicit narrative elements: the shepherd sets out to search for the flock, experiences an internal struggle, and attempts to comprehend the cause of the loss. However, the ending is often unresolved – the sheep are not found, and the sense of tragedy remains.

Scholars analyzing these variants have highlighted several potential cultural and psychological functions of the poem. These include its expression of existential loss, its reflection of pastoral moral values such as care and responsibility, its connection to ritual or seasonal symbolism, and its use as a form of emotional self-expression.

Cultural context: magical protection of the flock

Ethnographer Gottfried Habenicht connects the origins of the poem’s narrative to the magico-religious foundation of traditional pastoral culture. He suggests a possible link between the story and ritual practices related to expulsion, purification, and seasonal transitions. In this context, the loss of a flock could be interpreted as a form of supernatural punishment for breaking pastoral taboos.

Pastoralism, as one of the oldest forms of subsistence, traditionally required not only practical skills but also spiritual safeguards. In traditional Romanian culture, the concept of ritual purity played a central role in ensuring the safety and fertility of livestock. The sheep is regarded as a sacred and ritually “pure” animal, and the shepherd was expected to meet certain moral and physical standards. Violations of purity included activities such as attending village dances or engaging in romantic relationships. According to these beliefs, such actions could disrupt the protective harmony and lead to the loss of the flock.

Various ritual practices were used to protect the animals, including fumigation, spoken incantations, directional bucium calls aimed at the four cardinal points, and the use of living fire. These acts reflected the need for divine or supernatural protection against harm.

A recurrent motif in pastoral belief is the perceived disruptive presence of women as a potential source of disruption to the sacred order. Their presence on the pasture was perceived as a factor capable of destroying the mana (spiritual power) of the flock, possibly causing infertility among sheep or other misfortunes. As a result, women were traditionally barred from entering sheepfolds, and shepherds were often bound by a vow of chastity. In a number of ballads, including Miorița and its regional variants, the motif of a female character breaking a taboo (e.g., the "major's daughter") is accompanied by a tragic outcome. These narratives reflect the symbolic importance of maintaining sacred boundaries within pastoral life.

The plot about the loss of sheep is interpreted as a moral allegory, illustrating the consequences of violating pastoral norms. Some versions explicitly state that the shepherd loses his flock after spending a night away from the sheepfold or visiting a lover. In other texts, a sheep refuses to obey after sensing the presence of a woman. A recurring image is that of the shepherd awakening to discover that both his flock and a mysterious girl have vanished. These narratives emphasize the direct link between norm violation and the disruption of pastoral order.

Over time, the plot loses its archaic symbolism and acquires a more secular character. Later versions attribute the disappearance of the flock to external causes: a storm, predators, or accidental negligence. The moral emphasis weakens, and elements of realism, everyday plot, and narrative neutrality are strengthened. A comic tone appears, and the motif loses its connection to ritual. At the same time, the symbolic significance of the sheep as the center of the pastoral universe is preserved.

Similar musical stories

Pastoral folklore has given rise to other narrative musical tales. One of the best-known is "Povestea lui Tânjală" (The Story of Tânjală). In this tale, a shepherd descending from the mountains with his flock, loses his fluier. Encountering a group of plowmen, he takes their tânjală (a wooden yoke bar used in harnesses) and carves a new instrument from it. The plowmen, considering this theft, bring him before a judge. After hearing the case, the judge asks the shepherd to play the fluier. Impressed by the shepherd’s musical talent, the judge releases him. From that time on, the shepherd is known by the nickname Tânjală.

In some versions, the story continues: the frightened shepherd dares not descend into the valley and spends the winter on the mountain top, playing doinas and longing for his sheep.

Distribution and cross-cultural parallels

The composition is widespread throughout the entire Romanian cultural area: in Moldavia, Muntenia, Oltenia, Maramureș, Transylvania, Banat, Bukovina, as well as in the historical Romanian communities in Transcarpathia and Transnistria. In oral tradition, the title of the piece varies by region and performer. Common variants include:

• "Doina ciobanului" (The shepherd's doina);
• "Doina păcurarului" (The herdsman's doina);
• "Jalea cârlanului" (The lamb's lament);
• "A oilor" ([The doina] of the sheep);
• "Ciobăneasca" (The shepherd's [tune]);
• "Doina mocanului" (The Mocani shepherd's doina).

Despite the variation in names, most versions preserve stable structural and expressive features, conveying the same core emotional and narrative motifs of the original epic form.

Musical and poetic compositions similar in form and meaning also exist in the pastoral tradition of the North Carpathian peoples, under names such as "Hungarian: Oláh leány tánca" (Dance of a Vlach girl), "Ukrainian: Як вівчар вівці загубив" (How the shepherd lost his sheep), "Ukrainian: Дума про вівчаря" (The lament of the shepherd), "Polish: Wołoszyn owce rozproszył" (The vlach lost sheep), and others. These parallels reflect the common structure of Carpathian pastoral culture, formed through inter-ethnic contacts, particularly during the migration of Romanian (Wallachian) shepherd populations in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Medieval chronicles note the spread of pastoral settlements established under "Vlach law" (Latin: jus valachicum) among Slavic populations in Central Europe – in Galicia, Slovakia, the Polish Podhale region, and the Moravian Wallachia. The ethnonym Vlach in these regions acquired the additional meaning of "shepherd."

Musical forms

The musical forms of the composition range from concise vocal colinda to elaborate instrumental performances and even theatrical adaptations. Variants differ depending on region, context of performance, and the degree of narrative elaboration.

Vocal variants

Vocal interpretations include short songs, primarily colinde and hori, common in northern Transylvania. These are usually constructed on a hexasyllabic (6-syllable) or octosyllabic (8-syllable) metrical pattern and performed in a dance-like rhythm. The melodic basis is the Dorian hexachord. These compositions are characterized by their brevity, emotional restraint, and an archetypal narrative scheme: irreversible loss (often of goats), a search, and a final note of regret. Content is presented schematically, with little or no plot development and restrained ornamentation. This vocal variant is considered to be the most ancient form of the work.

Instrumental forms

The instrumental version of the poem represents a more developed form that has become widespread in all regions of the Romanian cultural area, particularly in zones of traditional pastoralism. The musical narrative is structured around the alternation of contrasting emotional states: sorrow over the loss of the flock, and joy at its perceived recovery. These emotions are expressed in distinct musical sections:

• Sorrow (jale, J) is conveyed through a doina or a melody performed in a free, rubato rhythm;
• Joy (bucurie, B) is represented by a dance melody, typically in a regular, giusto rhythm.

This forms a typical three-part structure: J–B–J, in which the return to the sorrowful theme underscores the illusory nature of the joy (the supposed flock turns out to be only stones).

In later versions, the didactic component is reduced, and the alternation of emotional themes is interpreted as a self-contained musical expression. The poem thus takes on primarily aesthetic rather than moral significance. A four-part composition with a "happy ending" appears: J–B–J–B, where the final dance symbolizes the actual recovery of the flock.

The musical narrative is entirely built on instrumental means. It is most commonly performed on the fluier or caval, traditional shepherd's flutes that differ in size and timbre. Performers may switch instruments within a single performance to vary tone color and mood – for instance, beginning the narrative on a caval and concluding with a brighter-sounding fluier or even a tree leaf. In some performances, musicians produce simultaneous guttural overtones while playing the flute, creating a heterophonic texture with two closely related but distinct melodic lines.

The music is highly ornamented, employing a rich vocabulary of expressive techniques to convey the narrative's emotional range. Performers use dynamic shifts like crescendo and descrescendo to reflect the shepherd’s inner states. Accents, often placed contratempo to the metric pulse, contribute to a distinctive expressive language that may evoke the shepherd’s heavy footsteps or the insistence of his calls. Additional techniques include mordents, tremolos, legato, staccato, and dramatic pauses, all of which enhance the music’s poetic character.

Rhythm is often rubato, free and unmeasured, particularly in sections expressing sorrow. This approach, akin to the doina genre, allows phrasing to follow speech-like intonation. In contrast, episodes that depict direct action are often set to a constant, fixed rhythm.

Melodically, the poem employs a variety of modal systems. The Dorian mode is commonly used for its somber character, though performers may modify individual scale degrees to reflect emotional shifts. The Aeolian mode and pentatonic scales often appear in the concluding dance sections, lending them a brighter tone.

Improvisation plays an important role: although the piece follows recognizable intonational models, each performance reflects the musician’s personal interpretation.

Extended narrative versions

In some cases, the basic structure of the poem is supplemented with original narrative episodes. Such are, for example, the interpretations of Nicolae Taftă, the priest and caval performer from Negrilești (Vrancea region, Moldova), whose versions include up to 15 episodes. These combine musical material with realistic storytelling, symbolic references to nature, and verbal narration. Such works go beyond a purely musical form and acquire the features of an oral epic.

Ballad in lăutărească style

Professional musicians (lăutari) have adapted the theme into an ironic ballad. In these versions, the loss of the flock is portrayed humorously: the shepherd is often shown as lazy or lovestruck, neglecting his duties. Other motifs include the miraculous recovery of the flock (with the number of sheep mysteriously doubled) and dialogues with a wolf. Structurally, these ballads resemble the rondo form: verses alternate with refrains. The characters are exaggerated or caricatured, and the performance is meant primarily for entertainment, with a reference to festive or table folklore. These versions represent parodic reinterpretations of archaic, more solemn models.

Theatrical and dramatic forms

In some regions, the plot of the poem evolved into forms of traditional folk theatre. These performances feature characters, dialogues, and dramatic action, while preserving the musical foundation of the work. Examples of such stagings have been documented in Dobruja (the play "Mocanii") and in Vâlcea County (Oltenia).

Musical influences

Instrumental pieces in lăutărească music

Peasant and pastoral traditional music is the primary source of lăutărească music. The poem When the Shepherd Lost His Sheep not only entered the lăutari repertoire as a vocal ballad, but also influenced the development of instrumental genres. Its narrative is reflected in the dichotomous structure of a widespread type of lăutari composition, built on the alternation of two musical episodes: a doina, expressing the sorrow of loss, and a dance melody, symbolizing joy. This compositional model gave rise to a whole series of instrumental pieces designed for the listener’s aesthetic enjoyment, such as "Doina ciobanului" (The Shepherd’s Doina), "Doina și hora", "Doina și bătuta", "Doina și brâul", "Doina și sârba", and others.

Connection with the ballad of Pintea the Brave

The Romanian ethnomusicologist Constantin Prichici has shown that the musical foundation of the ballad about Pintea the Brave, a legendary haiduc from Maramureș, can be traced back to archaic pastoral folklore, and primarily to the poem When the shepherd lost his sheep.

Both works share key musical characteristics: an alternation between slow and lively sections (a J–B–J structure), the use of pastoral signaling intonations, and improvisation techniques. They also feature typical intervallic patterns, the fourth and the fifth, characteristic of performance on the fluier, caval, and bucium.

Miorița and When the shepherd lost his sheep

The most well-known work of Romanian pastoral folklore is the ballad Miorița. It shares with the poem When the Shepherd Lost His Sheep a pastoral context, the motif of loss, and the symbolism of the sheep as a sacred being. At the same time, there are significant differences between them in both structure and worldview.

Miorița is most often performed in a narrative form, with emphasis on text and symbolism rather than musical dramaturgy. The shepherd anticipates his own death, foretold by a little ewe. Rather than resisting, he accepts his fate as a natural transition, filling it with poetic images (a cosmic wedding, Mother Nature, and spiritual ascension). The This has led some researchers to speak of Mioritic fatalism: a contemplative and harmonious attitude toward the inevitable (see Mircea Eliade’s analysis). Constantin Brăiloiu argued that the poem does not express resignation before death but rather echoes ancient magical rites intended to protect the living from the dead.

When the shepherd lost his sheep has a broader emotional range and a more open structure. It is built on musical contrasts: sorrow – illusory hope – disappointment – possible joy. The shepherd is not passive; he searches for the flock, enters into a dialogue with nature, and undergoes an internal emotional journey. In this case, fate is not a serene inevitability, but a lived experience of loss and search, even to the point of doubt and disorientation.

Modern status

Today, the musical folk poem When the shepherd lost his sheep has largely disappeared from living tradition. Its decline is linked to profound transformations in rural life, including the mechanization of agriculture, collectivization, the disappearance of communal pastures, and the erosion of traditional lifestyles. The situation has been exacerbated by broader social and economic changes that have led to the disintegration of peasant communities – the primary bearers of oral tradition. The influence of globalization has also reduced the space for the performance and transmission of pastoral folklore in its original form.

Sources

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• Prichici, Constantin (1957). "Geneza melodică a baladei lui Pintea Viteazul" [The melodic genesis of the ballad of Pintea the Brave]. Revista de etnografie şi folclor (in Romanian). 2 (4): 7–26.
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• Bartók, Béla (1967). Suchoff, Benjamin (ed.). Rumanian Folk Music. Vol. 1. Instrumental Melodies. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-3499-9. ISBN 978-94-010-3501-9.
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• Habenicht, Gottfried (1968). "Povestea ciobanului care şi-a pierdut oile. Geneză, evoluţie, tipuri" [The story of the shepherd who lost his sheep. Genesis, evolution, types]. Revista de etnografie şi folclor (in Romanian). 13 (3): 235–250.
• Eliade, Mircea (1972). Zalmoxis. The Vanishing God. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-20398-0.
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• Chiseliţă, Vasile (1993). "Instrumentele muzicale şi muzica instrumentală în nordul Bucovinei" [Musical instruments and instrumental music in northern Bukovina]. Folclor din Ţara Fagilor (in Romanian). Chişinău: Hyperion: 511–559. ISBN 5-368-01787-1.
• Rădulescu, Speranța (1996). "Gypsy Music versus the Music of Others" (PDF). Martor. 1. București: The Museum of the Romanian Peasant Anthropology: 134–145.
• Chiseliţă, Vasile (2009). "Repertoriul muzical păstoresc" [Pastoral musical repertoire]. Arta muzicală a Moldovei. Istorie și modernitate (in Romanian). Chişinău: Grafema Libris: 235–272. ISBN 978-9975-52-046-1.
• Nechiforeac, Vasilisa; Teodor, Svetlana; Scorpan, Irina, eds. (2009). Gleb Ciaicovschi-Mereşanu (1919—1999). Biobibliografie (in Romanian). Chişinău: Academia de Muzică, Teatru şi Arte Plastice. ISBN 978-9975-9634-9-7.
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Web links

• Bartók, Béla (2016–2021). "Collections at the Museum of Ethnography. Romanian units". bartok.neprajz.hu. Museum of Ethnography. Archived from the original on 2025-04-27.
• Papuc, Ion (1932). "Cînd si-a perdut ciobanul oile" [When the shepherd lost his sheep]. Fonds Constantin Brailoiu (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 2025-06-12.
• Chiseliţă, Vasile (2011). "Când şi-a pierdut ciobanul oile" [When the shepherd lost his sheep]. Patrimoniul cultural imaterial al Republicii Moldova (in Romanian). Ministerul Culturii al Republicii Moldova. Archived from the original on 2024-11-04.
• Cazacu, Ilie (1936). "The Traditional Folk Music Band: II. Bucovina". discogs.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-27.
• Lungoci, Silvestru (1974). "Bucovine II (Coutumes)". discogs.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-27.
• Taraful din Dobrotești (1994). "Ciobanul care și-a pierdut oile" [The shepherd who lost his sheep]. YouTube (in Romanian). Ethnophonie.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• Moldovan, Mihai (2017). "Mihai Moldovan, baciul din Mureş, calificat în semifinala „Vedeta populară"" [Mihai Moldovan, the shepherd from Mureş, qualified for the "Popular Star" semi-final]. tvr.ro (in Romanian). Televiziunea Română. Archived from the original on 2025-06-27.
• Bogos, Procopie (1990a). "Молдавский музыкальный фольклор" [Moldavian musical folklore]. melody.su (in Russian). Melodiya. Archived from the original on 2025-06-24.
• Bogos, Procopie (1990b). "Moldavian Musical Folklore". discogs.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-27.
• Trei parale (2015). "Ciobanul care și-a pierdut oile" [The shepherd who lost his sheep]. bandcamp.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-27.
• Тимофіїв, Михайло (1997). "Музичні інструменти Гуцульщини" [Musical instruments of the Hutsul region]. discogs.com (in Ukrainian). Українська Експериментальна Лабораторія Фольклору. Archived from the original on 2025-07-03.
• Fonó Budai Zeneház. "When the Shepherd Lost His Sheep". fono.hu. Archived from the original on 2025-07-03.

Further reading

• Florea, Ioan T. (1997). Scrieri etnomuzicoIogice [Ethnomusicological writings] (in Romanian). Arad: Mirador. ISBN 973-9284-38-8.

• Amzulescu, Alexandru (2001). Miorița și alte studii și note de folclor românesc alese din anii 1975–2000 [Miorița and other selected studies and notes on Romanian folklore from 1975–2000]. Anotimpuri culturale (in Romanian). Bucureşti: Centrul Național de Conservare și Valorificare a Tradiției și a Creației Populare.
• Păun, Ştefan (2022). "Balada Ciobanul care a pierdut oile – o nouă variantă" [The Ballad of the Shepherd Who Lost His Sheep – a new variation]. independentaromana.ro (in Romanian). Independența Română. Archived from the original on 2025-03-27.