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Central Andean languages are languages indigenous to the cultural and historical region of the Andean civilizations, centered around the present-day countries of Peru and Bolivia. This region was home to the Inca Empire, the largest pre-Columbian state in the Americas. The Central Andes also witnessed the rise and fall of earlier cultures, such as the Norte Chico, one of the world's earliest cradles of civilization. In some areas, particularly in northern Peru, there is evidence of great linguistic diversity before European contact. Despite its cultural and technological advancements, writing systems comparable to those of Mesoamerica never developed in the Central Andes.
Two language families—Quechuan and Aymaran—emerged as dominant forces due to the political and cultural influence of the Inca Empire and were further spread through Spanish colonial efforts at conversion of the native peoples to Christianity. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain among the largest indigenous languages of the Americas, with millions of speakers across the former territory of the Inca Empire. However, many other languages of this area have either become endangered or are now extinct.
Geographical overview
[edit]
The Central Andes are generally defined as the part of the Andean mountain range that stretches mostly through Peru and Bolivia, but also includes the far north of Chile, and parts of northwestern Argentina. Geographically, the northern limit of the Central Andes can be considered the Huancabamba Depression,[1] while the volcano Llullaillaco may serve as the southern limit.[2] To the west, the region includes coastal deserts such as the Atacama Desert in Chile, while the lush eastern slopes of the Andes are marking the transition to the vast Amazon Basin, which lies outside the Central Andean region.[3]
Alternatively, one may define the term "Central Andes" culturally or historically to refer to the area of the greatest extent of the Inca Empire, spanning from southern Colombia to the Maule River south of present-day Santiago de Chile.[4]
The highest peak in the Central Andes is Mount Huascarán in Peru, reaching an elevation of 6,768 meters (22,205 ft). Central to the region is the Altiplano, a high-altitude plateau that houses Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navigable lake and La Paz, the highest capital city in the world.[5]
Peruvian north coast
[edit]
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the arid Peruvian north coast was home to several languages that appear to have been genealogically isolated, despite existing within a relatively restricted geographical area. Typological features, such as the prevalent use of monosyllabic roots and the tolerance of word-final plosives, stand in contrast to the characteristics of the Quechuan and Aymaran languages found further south. Based on the available data, these traits can be tentatively assumed to be areal features resulting from localized linguistic influences.[6]
Tallán
[edit]The northernmost attested language (or language family) of the Peruvian coast is Tallán. It was spoken in what is now the Piura region, along the Piura and Chira rivers, north of the Sechura Desert. Surviving tales from the indigenous population have appeared to suggest that the language might have come from the adjacent highlands. Tallán is documented in two closely related varieties, Catacao and Colán, named after the respective towns where they were spoken. These varieties are often assumed to be dialects rather than separate languages and are therefore subsumed under the label Tallán. However, this assessment cannot be confirmed with certainty, as the sole surviving documentation consists of only brief word lists for each variety.[7] The extinction of Tallán is believed to have occurred in the early to mid-19th century.[6]
Sechura
[edit]The Sechura language was another regional language spoken in the Piura region, around the bay of Sechura, south of the Tallán-speaking area but north of the Sechura Desert. The sources on Sechura are almost equally scarce, consisting of a wordlist and one sample collected while the language was still spoken. It probably went extinct in the late 19th century, surviving longer than its northern neighbor, the Tallán language.
The linguistic situation in the village of Olmos, located at the southern edge of the Sechura-speaking area, remains poorly understood. An influence of the neighbouring Mochica language can be reasonably assumed. However, Olmos may have hosted multiple native languages or even a mixed language that combined elements of Mochica and Sechura.
The limited data on the Sechura language does not allow for its definitive classification. However, some attested words suggest it may have been related to Tallán, potentially forming a small Sechura-Catacao language family.[6]
Mochica
[edit]The Mochica language was spoken south of the Sechura desert around the present day Lambayeque region. It is the best documented language of this area and the only one for which both dictionaries and grammatical descriptions exist. It might have been the language of the Sicán and Moche cultures as it appears to be long established in the region.
Adelaar 2004; Cerrón-Palomino 1995; Hovdhaugen 2004; Torero 2002[8]
Quingnam
[edit]South of the Mochica speaking-area in the heartland of Chimor, the Quingnam language, also known as Pescadora, was spoken.[9]
Marañón River basin
[edit]The Marañón river basin marked the frontier between the northern central Andes and the Amazon river basin. It harboured many languages until the conquest of the Inca empire.
Culli
[edit]Although it probably only went extint in the mid 20th century only two word lists survive.[6]
Hibito-Cholón
[edit]Cholón is one of the few extinct languages of the central Andes where significant documentation, including a colonial grammar, exists.[12]
The Hibito language is only attested by two wordlists.[6]
Other languages which might have been related include Chacha, Copallén, and the unattested Den and Cat.
Other languages
[edit]Other languages formerly spoken in the Marañón river basin include Tabancale, Chirino, Sácata, Patagón and Bagua.
Central and Southern Peru
[edit]
The most important Andean language families, Quechuan and Aymaran, are thought to have their homelands in central and southern Peru.[11][13]
Quechuan
[edit]Quechua or the Quechuan languages are the primary language family of the Andes, spoken by millions of people stretching from northern Colombia to Argentina alongside the former territory of the Inca empire. The most widely spoken Quechuan language is Southern Quechua, spoken by about five million people in Peru, Bolivia and Chile. Other dialects include Northern Quechua (including Kichwa in Ecuador) and several varieties of Quechua I.
Aymaran
[edit]The Aymaran languages are the second largest family of Andean languages. Almost all of the speakers live in the Altiplano region in Bolivia and Peru and speaking Aymara proper. However a small number of less than a thousand people in the Lima region still speak Jaqaru and Kawqi, which are thought to form a more conservative branch of the Aymaran family closer to their homeland. A wide presence of Aymaran languages in Southern Peru and Western Bolivia is assumed to have existed in pre-Incan times before the spread of Quechua.
Bolivia and Northern Chile
[edit]Puquina
[edit]
Puquina was a language of the Altiplano, which was spoken widely even before the times of the Inca-Empire. It might have been the lingua franca of the Tiwanaku empire.
Several scholars have theorized that Puquina could have served as a secret language of the Inca nobility, known as Qhapaq simi.
The surviving but critically endangered Kallawaya language could be a mixed language combining Quechua and Puquina elements.
Puquina has not been linked conclusively to any other language, but a remote connection to the Arawakan familiy, based on a few grammatical traits of both, remains possible.
Leco
[edit]Leco is an moribund language isolate, spoken east of Lake Titicaca.
Uru-Chipaya
[edit]The Uru-Chipaya languages form an endangered language family in western Bolivia around the Lakes Titicaca and Poopó. Only Chipaya survives up to this day, but the related Uru language was spoken until very recently, going extinct only in 2012. Both languages are reasonably well documented.
The extinct and undocumented Chango language might have been related.
Kunza
[edit]Kunza or Atacameño is an extinct language spoken formerly in the very south of the Central Andes in what is now southwestern Bolivia, northwestern Argentina and Northern Chile around the Atacama desert. It might have been related to the undocumented Humahuaca language to the east, or to Cacán further down south.
Classification
[edit]Due to the early extinction of many indigenous languages in this region and the sparse data available on them, a thorough classification of the Central Andean languages remains elusive. The region appears to contain numerous shallow language families and language isolates.[6] Several controversial grouping proposals, such as "Amerind languages", "Quechumaran languages", and "Maya-Yunga-Chipayan languages," have been made, but none have gained widespread acceptance, and many have been entirely dismissed.[6][14][15]
| Language | Speakers | Region | Classification | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tallán | Extinct | Piura | Sechura–Catacao? | Catacao and Colán are sometimes distinguished as dialects. |
| Sechura | Extinct (c. 1900) | Maybe related to Tallán or Olmos. | ||
| Olmos | Extinct | Lambayeque | Possibly a mixed languages from Sechura and Mochica. | |
| Mochica | Extinct (c. 1920) | isolate | ||
| Quingnam | Extinct (c. 1700) | La Libertad, Áncash | unclassified | Also known as "lengua pescadora". |
| Tabancale | Extinct | Cajamarca | unclassified | See: Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin. |
| Chirino | Extinct | Candoshi? | ||
| Sácata | Extinct | |||
| Patagón | Extinct | Cariban? | ||
| Bagua | Extinct | |||
| Hibito | Extinct (c. 1900) | San Martín | Hibito–Cholon | |
| Cholón | ? | Status uncertain. | ||
| Chacha | Extinct | Amazonas | Hibito–Cholon? | undocumented |
| Copallén | Extinct | Cajamarca | ||
| Den | Extinct | Unattested, only known from toponyms. | ||
| Cat | Extinct | |||
| Culle | Extinct (c. 1950) | La Libertad | unclassified | |
| Ancash Quechua | 700,000 | Central Peru | Quechuan | Quechua I. |
| Huánuco Quechua | 100,000? | |||
| Yaru Quechua | 90,000 | |||
| Wanka Quechua | 250,000? | |||
| Yauyos Quechua | 13,000 | |||
| Pacaraos Quechua | ? | Quechua I? | ||
| Cajamarca–Cañaris Quechua | 50,000 | Quechua IIA. | ||
| Northern Quechua | 500,000 | Ecuador, Northeastern Peru | Quechua IIB.
Includes Kichwa (which is mainly spoken in Ecuador), Chachapoyas Quechua and Lamas Quechua. | |
| Southern Quechua | 5,000,000 | Southern Peru, Western Bolivia | Quechua IIC.
Includes Ayacucho Quechua, Cusco Quechua and several Bolivian Quechua varieties. | |
| Jaqaru | 740 | Lima | Aymaran | |
| Kawki | <9 | Sometimes considered a dialect of Jaqaru. | ||
| Aymara | 1.700.000 | Altiplano | Several related Aymaran languages are thought to have also been previously spoken in much of central and southern Peru. | |
| Puquina | Extinct (c. 1800) | Lake Titicaca | ? | Possibly distantly related to Arawakan. |
| Kallawaya | <20 | La Paz | Possibly a mixed language from Puquina and Quechua. | |
| Leco | <20 | |||
| Uru | Extinct (c. 2012) | Uru–Chipayan | ||
| Chipaya | 1.800 | Oruro | ||
| Chango | Extinct | Northern Chile | Uru–Chipayan? | undocumented |
| Kunza | Extinct (c. 1950) | Atacama desert | ? | Also known as Atacameño. |
| Humahuaca | Extinct | Northern Argentina | ||
| Cacán | Extinct | Northern Argentina, Chile | unclassified | Also known as Diaguita. |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Weigend, Maximilian (2002). "Observations on the Biogeography of the Amotape-Huancabamba Zone in Northern Peru". Botanical Review. 68 (1): 38–54. ISSN 0006-8101.
- ^ Borsdorf, Axel; Stadel, Christoph (2015). The Andes: a geographical portrait. Springer geography. Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-03530-7.
- ^ Adelaar, Willem F. H. (2004). The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36275-7.
- ^ Quilter, Jeffrey (2022). The ancient central Andes. Routledge world archaeology (2nd ed.). London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-003-03825-2.
- ^ "Bolivia Facts". travel.nationalgeographic.com. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g Urban, Matthias (2019). Lost languages of the Peruvian North coast. Estudios Indiana. Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut (1. Auflage ed.). Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7861-2826-7.
- ^ Loukotka, Čestmír (1949). "Sur quelques langues inconnues de l'Amérique du Sud". Lingua Posnaniensis (in French). 1: 53–82.
- ^ Adelaar, Willem F. H. (1999). "Unprotected languages, the silent death of the languages in Northern Peru". In Herzfeld, Anita; Lastra, Yolanda (eds.). The social causes of the disappearance and maintenance of languages in the nations of America: papers presented at the 49° International Congress of Americanists, Quito, Ecuador, July 7–11, 1997. Hermosillo: USON. ISBN 978-968-7713-70-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) - ^ García, José Antonio Salas (2010). "La lengua pescadora". Boletín de la Academia Peruana de la Lengua (in Spanish) (50): 83–128. doi:10.46744/bapl.201002.004. ISSN 2708-2644.
- ^ Jansen, Maarten; Loo, Peter van der; Manning, Roswitha A., eds. (1988). Continuity and Identity in Native America: Essays in Honor of Benedikt Hartmann. Social Sciences - Book Archive pre-2000. Leiden Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-66065-6.
- ^ a b "Lenguas y sociedades en el antiguo Perú: hacia un enfoque interdisciplinario". revistas.pucp.edu.pe (in Spanish). Retrieved 2025-01-25.
- ^ Alexander-Bakkerus, Astrid (2005). Eighteenth-century Cholón. LOT. Utrecht: LOT, Landelijk Onderzoekschool Taalwetenschap. ISBN 978-90-76864-86-0.
- ^ Heggarty, Paul; Beresford-Jones, David; British Academy, eds. (2012). Archaeology and language in the Andes: a cross-disciplinary exploration of prehistory. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford ; New York: Published for the British Academy by Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-726503-1. OCLC 754167880.
- ^ Adelaar, Willem F. H. (2012-01-27), Campbell, Lyle; Grondona, Verónica (eds.), "Languages of the Middle Andes in areal-typological perspective: Emphasis on Quechuan and Aymaran", The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 575–624, doi:10.1515/9783110258035.575, ISBN 978-3-11-025803-5, retrieved 2025-01-10
- ^ Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y (2007-04-12), Miyaoka, Osahito; Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E (eds.), "Languages of the Pacific Coast of South America", The Vanishing Languages Of The Pacific Rim, Oxford University Press, p. 0, doi:10.1093/oso/9780199266623.003.0010, ISBN 978-0-19-926662-3, retrieved 2025-01-25
- ^ Urban, Matthias, ed. (2024). The Oxford guide to the languages of the central Andes. Oxford guides to the worlds languages. Newyork: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884992-6.
- ^ Urban, Matthias (2023). Linguistic Stratigraphy: Recovering Traces of Lost Languages in the Central Andes (1st ed.). Cham: Springer International Publishing AG. ISBN 978-3-031-42102-0.
- ^ Urban, Matthias (2019-08-14). "Is there a Central Andean Linguistic Area? A View from the Perspective of the "Minor" Languages". Journal of Language Contact. 12 (2): 271–304. doi:10.1163/19552629-01202002. ISSN 1877-4091.
- ^ Urban, Matthias (2021-05-01). "Linguistic and cultural divisions in pre-Hispanic Northern Peru". Language Sciences. 85: 101354. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2020.101354. ISSN 0388-0001.
- ^ Urban, Matthias (2021). "Language classification, language contact and Andean prehistory: The North". Language and Linguistics Compass. 15 (5): e12414. doi:10.1111/lnc3.12414. ISSN 1749-818X.
- ^ Willem Adelaar; Simon van de Kerke. "The Puquina and Leko languages". Symposium: Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics, July 17–18, 2006, at the 52nd International Congress of Americanists, Seville, Spain. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
- ^ Silverman, Helaine (2002). The Nasca. Peoples of America Ser. Donald A. Proulx. Newark: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-470-69266-0.