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Tornedalians

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Tornedalians
tornionlaaksolaiset (Meänkieli)
Flag of Tornedalians
Man from Kolari in traditional clothing.
Regions with significant populations
 Sweden40,000-150,000[1][2][3]
Languages
Meänkieli, Finnish and Swedish
Religion
Lutheranism (Laestadianism)
Related ethnic groups
Kvens, Peräpohjalaiset, Finns, Karelians

Tornedalians (Meänkieli: tornionlaaksolaiset; Finnish: tornionjokilaaksolaiset; Swedish: tornedalingar) are an ethnic minority native to the Torne Valley (Meänmaa) region in northern Sweden and Finland.[4] Tornedalians were officially recognized as a national minority in Sweden in 2000.[5] Tornedalians divide themselves into three distinct groups: Tornedalians, Kvens, and Lantalaiset.[4]

Name and subgroups

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The English word Tornedalian derives from the Swedish name for the Torne Valley, Tornedalen. The Swedish word Tornedalen in turn derives from the archaic Finnic word tornio meaning spear and the Swedish word dal which means valley.[6]

Tornedalians generally divide themselves into three different groups: Tornedalians, Lantalaiset and Kvens.[4] The term Tornedalian (Tornionlaaksolainen, pl. Tornionlaaksolaiset) originally refers specifically to someone living along the lower course of the Torne river, beginning roughly in Pajala municipality. The term has come to be used to denote all 'Tornedalians'.[7][8] Lantalaiset (sl. Lantalainen; lit. "fertiliser/settled people")[9] typically live in the further inland areas of Swedish and Finnish Lapland, known as Lannanmaa by Lantalaiset. The parts of Sweden inhabited by Lantalaiset largely correspond to the area known in Swedish as Malmfälten.[10][7][11]

The term Kven has a disputed etymology. It appears for the first time in Ohthere of Hålogaland's 9th century accounts of northern Europe and is used mostly in Norwegian and Icelandic sources to refer to Tornedalians.[12] With the integration of Meänmaa into Sweden the term fell into disuse in the Torne valley, though continued to be used among Norwegians Kvens.[12] In Meänmaa the term featured in some traditional tales but was not actively used.[13] Since the 1990s the term has been revived in Meänmaa[12] and is especially commonly used by Lantalaiset.[14] The term is also very common in the Karesuando (Karesuanto) area.[8]

Terms such as meänmaalaiset (lit. people of our land), meikäläiset (lit. people like us) and Kven (kvääni/kveeni) are used natively to refer to Tornedalians as a whole. Ultimately, there is no internal consensus on the use of any one term.[15][16][8]

Historically the term Finn has been used to denote all Tornedalians. While some Tornedalians will sometimes use the term Finn and Finnish, in contexts where being Tornedalians is implied, the term can be offensive to some.[17][18] In a historical context the terms Finn/Finnish may sometimes still be used.[19] The somewhat derogatory Swedish terms byfinne (pl. byfinnar, lit. 'village Finns') and lappfinne (pl. lappfinnar, lit. 'Sámi Finns') have historically been used to describe the Meänkieli-speaking population in the Gällivare area.[20] While the term lappfinne has fallen out of use, the term byfinne is still used.[21]

These different terms/groups are not necessarily exclusive, and some may identify with multiple.[22]

Language

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Main article: Meänkieli

Meänkieli, or Tornedalian, is the language or dialect spoken by Tornedalians. While Meänkieli is recognised in Sweden as one of the country's five minority languages, its status as an independent language is sometimes disputed due to its high mutual intelligibility with Finnish. It belongs to the Uralic language family.[23]

History

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Early History

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Finnic populations first began settling in the northern reaches of the Bay of Bothnia during the Viking Age, which previously would have likely been solely inhabited by the Sámi.[24][12] Finnic settlement in the Bothnian Bay likely extended as far as the Pite and Lule Rivers by the 1100s and 1200s.[25][26] Local toponomy indicates early Finnic populations in the area were made up of Tavastians and Karelians.[27] These may have formed the ancient Kvens, which are often considered ancestors of todays Tornedalians and Kvens,[28][12] though the connection between the ancient Kvens and modern Tornedalians and Kvens has been disputed.[29] In 1323, in the aftermath of the Treaty of Nöteborg, the government of King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden decreed that all land from Hälsingland to the Ule River would be free for settlement and that all those who did would be excempt from taxes until 1340. Only five years later in 1328 a legal hearing was held in Tälje as the birkarls, local Tornedalian tradesmen and representatives, disputed the right of the Hälsings (Swedes) to colonise the area. While the case was ruled in the favour of the birkarls and Sámi, and again re-confirmed in 1358 by king Erik Magnusson,[30] Swedish expansion northwards would nonetheless push Tornedalian populations back.[26] Likewise the rights of the birkarls to conduct trade would over the centuries be curtailed by Sweden which sought to establish control over the lucrative and well-developed northern trade.[30] While it is not certain that all birkarls were necessarily Tornedalians, church and tax records show that they are ancestors to todays Tornedalians.[31][32]

Birkarls trading as depicted on the Carta Marina (1539)

16th, 17th and 18th centuries

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The 16th and 17th centuries would see the era of the birkarls come to an end. In 1528 king Gustav Vasa would double the tithes owed to the crown, in 1543 he began taxing their homesteads and in 1554 he revoked their right to collect taxes, instead replacing them with agents of the crown. Charles IX would impose strict regulations on when, where and how the birkarls could trade and travel in general in Lappmarken. In the end the situation would become untenable and by 1620 the birkarls had ceased to exist as an entity.[30][31] Despite their previously privileged status in Tornedalian society very few birkarls would become burghers, instead remaining as part of the peasantry.[31]

In 1584 King Johan III had signed a decree 'regarding the protection of the inhabitants of the Lappmark from the intrusions of the Torne-peasants'. According to the document the right to fish in the inland lakes of northern Sweden and Finland would fall exclusively to those who lived closest by them. Because of this Sámi families which lived in the area could take over fishing lakes and hunting grounds formerly in the hands of Tornedalian families. The inland fishing was vital to Tornedalian livelihood at the time and this would along with an increasing population over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries lead many to settle permanently in the inland, in contrast to previously when the areas had only been seasonally inhabited by Tornedalians. Those who settled permanently in the inland would come to be known as Lantalaiset. During this era relations between Sámi and Tornedalians continued to be overall positive despite increasingly predatory Swedish involvement. Most conflict was Tornedalian-Tornedalian or Sámi-Sámi and land disputes between the groups were uncommon.[33]

1809 and forwards

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The Torne valley

Following the Treaty of Fredrikshamn between Sweden and Russia in 1809, all Swedish lands east of the Torne, Muonio and Könkämä rivers were ceded to Russia as the Grand Duchy of Finland. As a result, the Finnish speaking communities on the western side were separated from those on the east. This would later lead to linguistic drift, creating the language known as Meänkieli.[34] The split region continued to be culturally homogenous, so the border had little impact on people's everyday lives.[35][36]

Later, the Tornedalians were the targets of extensive so-called "racial biology" and Swedification policies. During the 1800s many Tornedalian and Sámi graves were plundered at the behest of priests.[37][38] Lars Levi Læstadius himself participated in the process of plundering graves.[39] In 1888 Swedish was made the sole language of civil life, as well as the only language taught in schools.[40][34] No outright ban was ever instituted in Finland, but those who spoke the language were discriminated against.[41] After the 1902 Norrbotten famine, "work cabins" were established in Norrbotten in the fashion of boarding schools where the children from the sparsely populated region could be provided with food, lodging and education.[42] Here, teachers would work to forcefully assimilate Tornedalian children; abuse was rampant.[43][44][45] In the early to mid 1900's, Herman Lundborg from the State Institute for Racial Biology performed skull measurements on Tornedalians in 1913, which continued into the 1950s.[46] The ban on speaking Meänkieli in school was revoked by the Riksdag in 1957.[47]

In 2000, a new law went into effect recognising the Tornedalians as an official national minority and Meänkieli as an official minority language. A truth and reconciliation commission on historical discrimination against the population was appointed in 2020, and made its final report on 15 May 2023.[47] In both 2020 and 2023, STR-T, the National Association of Swedish Tornedalians demanded the Swedish government to investigate their status as an indigenous people in accordance with ILO 169, although both times the Swedish government has denied to do so.[48]

Religion and beliefs

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See also: Laestadianism
Cross in memory of the old Särkilaksi (Särkilax) church, first raised in the late 1400s, which was destroyed during the ice discharge of 1615.

Christianity first gained a foothold in the region in the 1400's. By the 1600's it had come to be the dominant religion displacing earlier pagan beliefs.[49] Many pagan beliefs would continue throughout the Christinization and afterwards. Jopmel/Jobmel was a key figure in Tornedalian beliefs, along with figures such as Hiisi, Perhana, Veen neiti, Jatuni, and others.[13] According to traditional beliefs, a saivo is a special kind of holy "double-bottomed" lake which can act as a portal to the land of the dead.[50][51] The jänkkäsilmä (lit. 'eye of the bog') was a similarly holy feature in nature, which could likewise transport a person to the other life or through time.[13]

The noita, the same as the Sámi noaidi, was a traditional shaman.[52][53] During the 1600s and 1700s when Christianity became dominant in Meänmaa the noita largely lost his importance as a religious figure and became primarily a keeper of traditional medical knowledge.[52]

A significant religious shift would come to Meänmaa in the mid-1800s when the Swedish priest Lars Levi Læstadius began preaching his beliefs in the area. Læstadius spoke Sami but had no knowledge of Meänkieli when he first came to the area in the 1820s. While he first attempted to communicate via the Finnish he had learnt from a book, though he soon found that the local speech was rather different from "proper Finnish" and thus resolved to learn the language first-hand, travelling between different homes and villages and talking to many citizens. Læstadius gained great popularity in Meänmaa, though especially in his earlier years his devout belief in temperance caused trouble.[54] When he died in 1861, Johan Raattamaa [sv] took up the mantle as spiritual leader of the movement. After his death in 1899 the movement splintered, though Læstadianism remains an important part of much of Tornedalian society.[55][56]

During the 1930s, the Korpela Movement gripped Meänmaa. It taught that God would soon make a crystal bridge to Palestine where a utopia would be established. The movement was much more lenient with the consumption of alcohol and extramarital sexual relations. It became popular with lantalaiset. The movement's heyday came to an end in 1939/1940 when the last of its preachers were jailed but its beliefs have had a lasting impact in Meänmaa.[57][58]

Liikutukset is an important practice of Tornedalian/Kven Læstadianism. The word roughly translates as 'movements' and involves moving about in a state of religious ecstasy often involving hopping, clapping, dancing, shouting praise, singing and similar activities.[59][58]

Population

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Sweden does not distinguish minority groups in population censuses. The number of people who identify themselves as "Tornedalians" is usually estimated to be between 30,000 and 150,000. Estimates are complicated by the fact that the remote and sparsely populated Tornedalen area has been particularly struck by the 20th-century urbanisation and unemployment. In 2006, a large radio survey about Finnish/Meänkieli speakers was conducted in Sweden. The result was that 469,000 individuals in Sweden claimed to understand or speak Finnish and/or Meänkieli. Those who can speak or understand Meänkieli are estimated to be 150,000–175,000.[citation needed]

Traditional clothing

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After Christmas service in Tornio, 1820s.

Traditional men's clothing was distinguished by the so-called långkolt (Swedish for "long gákti") along with a sort of blue or black hat typically adorned with red seams,[33] often called a kairalakki.[60] During winter the peski might be used over the långkolt.[61] Blue and red were the most common colours but also black, yellow, grey and green featured commonly.[33] Women typically wore kirtles and short jackets, with a coif or huivi which is a sort of head scarf.[33][62] What in Swedish is called a näbbsko (beak-shoe) is the traditional footwear used by Tornedalians. They are typically made of reindeer hide or sometimes cow hide. Winter shoes are known as nutukka, while summer shoes are known as paulakengät or vuotakengät.[63][64] Wealthier individuals sometimes wore Sámi silver belts.[33] Because of Swedification little of this fashion has survived.

In 1912 a Swedish commission in Luleå, inspired by the romantic nationalism of the era, set about designing folk costumes for Norrbotten. It was then that the current Torne valley costume (Swedish: Tornedalsdräkt) was designed. The Torne valley dress was used in both schools and work camps and became very widespread. Today it has become a pillar of Tornedalian women's fashion.[65][66][67] The men's dress seems to have never caught on.[citation needed] Silver and tin are commonly used in jewelry.[67]

Literature and cinema

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The oldest works of native Tornedalian literature known today are two runic songs by Antti Keksi [fi] The first and most famous concerns the ice discharge of 1677, which brought massive carnage to Torne valley at the time. It was written down roughly 100 years after its composition and at the time accredited to his grandson Josef. The second surviving runic song by Keksi is much less famous and concerns the priest Nicolaus.[68]

Bengt Pohjanen is one of the most prolific Tornedalian authors. He wrote the first novel in Meänkieli and has written dramas, screenplays, songs and opera. He is trilingual in his writing.[69][70]

The novel Popular Music from Vittula (2000) by the Tornedalian author Mikael Niemi became very popular both in Sweden and in Finland. It is composed of colourful stories of everyday life in the Tornedalian town of Pajala. The novel has been adapted for several stage productions, and as a film in 2004.

The first feature length movie in Meänkieli premiered in 2025. Titled Liikheitä in Meänkieli (Swedish: Rörelser; Finnish: Valitut), it follows the rise and fall of the Korpela movement. It is directed by Jon Blåhed [sv] and based on Bengt Pohjanen's book Dagning; Röd!.[71][72]

Flag

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Sámi, Tornedalian and Kven flags during the Akamella repatriation ceremony.

The flag is a horizontal tricolour of yellow, white and blue. The flag was designed in 2007 by the organisation Meänmaa Tinkerit. The design references a quote credited to a Tornedalian woman as the border was being drawn: "The summer-blue sky, you cannot cut in two; Nor the white winter field can you part; And neither can you divide the clear yellow sun! That which you cannot cut in twain shall forever remain." or alternatively "You may gladly draw a line in the earth, but the air, sun and land - that you can never cut in two." The Nordic cross is not present on the flag as "No crusaders have we ever been".[73][74] The flag initially faced some criticism as it was seen by some as a nationalist symbol.[74]

The Meänmaa Flag Day is celebrated on July 15.[75][76]

Lantalaiset and Kvens typically use the Kven flag instead, designed in 2009 by Bengt Johansson-Kyrö. The Kven flag day is March 16th.[77][78]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ https://tornedalingar.se/vad-ar-sa-speciellt-med-tornedalen/. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  2. ^ https://www.isof.se/nationella-minoritetssprak/meankieli/lar-dig-mer-om-meankieli/meankieli-nu-och-da. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ https://www.minoritet.se/tornedalingar. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ^ a b c "Tornedalingar". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  5. ^ "Fourth Report submitted by Sweden pursuant to Article 25, paragraph 2 of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (ACFC/SR/IV(2016)004)". Council of Europe: Secretariat of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. 1 June 2014. p. 3. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
  6. ^ Vahtola, Jouko. Torneå - porten till Lappland och mot väst genom århundraden [Tornio - the gate to Lapland and the west throughout the centuries] (in Swedish).
  7. ^ a b "Tornedalsk identitet". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  8. ^ a b c Nieminen, Nilla (18 April 2024). "Vilka är kvänerna, tornedalingarna och lantalaiset?". SVT Nyheter (in Swedish). Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  9. ^ "Resultat för "lanta" - MEÄN SANA Tornedalsfinska ordbok". meankielensanakirja.com. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  10. ^ "Background of the region of Lannanmaa and Torne Valley". Platform working for a Lannanmaa/Torne Valley Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 21 March 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  11. ^ "lannankieli – MÅNGKULTURELLA ALMANACKAN". web.archive.org. 1 June 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  12. ^ a b c d e Elenius, Lars (2019). The dissolution of ancient Kvenland and the transformation of the Kvens as an ethnic group of people. On changing ethnic categorizations in communicative and collective memories.
  13. ^ a b c Pohjanen, Bengt (2021). Meänmaan Saagoja [The Stories of Our Land] (in Tornedalen Finnish).
  14. ^ "Svenska Kväner-Lantalaiset Kiruna – STR-T" (in Swedish). Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  15. ^ Pohjanen, Bengt (2022). MEÄNKIELI – Grammatik, lärobok, historik, texter –. p. 20.
  16. ^ Svenska Tornedalingars Riksförbund - Tornionlaaksolaiset. Meikäläiset : Vi tornedalingar : tidskrift för det tvåspråkiga tornedalsområdet Svenska tornedalingars riksförbund (1983:1).
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  23. ^ Abondolo, Daniel; Valijärvi, Riitta-Liisa (31 March 2023). The Uralic Languages. Taylor & Francis. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-317-23097-7.
  24. ^ Aikio, Ante (2012). An essay on Saami ethnolinguistic prehistory. pp. 31–34.
  25. ^ Kuvaja, Christer. Kieliraja Länsipohjassa Ruotsin ajan lopussa Språkgränsen i Västerbotten i slutet av svenska tiden [The Language Border in Västerbotten at the end of the Swedish era] (in Swedish and Finnish).
  26. ^ a b "Ortnamn på meänkieli". www.isof.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 4 December 2024.
  27. ^ Hannele Jönssön-Korhola ja Anna-Riitta Lindgren (2003). Monena suomi maailmalla – Suomalaisperäisiä kielivähemmistöjä. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. ISBN 951-746-344-8.
  28. ^ Sannings och försoningskommissionen för tornedalingar, kväner och lantalaisets slutbetänkande [The Truth and Reconciliation Commission for Tornedalians, Kvens and Lantalaiset's final report] (in Swedish). 2023. pp. 178–183.
  29. ^ Myten om kvänernas rike. En granskning. Manuskript, 2013-08-12. Lennart Lundmark is a retired historian, formerly of Umeå University, a recognised expert in the field, and has published several books about the history of northern Fennoscandia (PDF in Swedish). Retrieved 14 July, 2016.
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  31. ^ a b c Kuoksu, Erik (2010). BIRKARLSSLÄKTER I ÖVER TORNEDALEN [Birkarl clans in the Upper Torne Valley] (in Swedish).
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  35. ^ Lundgren, Edvard (2006). Den nya riksgränsen Byråkratiseringsprocessen och gränsdragningen i Tornedalen 1809-1825 (in Swedish).
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  37. ^ "Åter begravda - Akamella ödekyrkogård fylld av liv". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 October 2024.
  38. ^ Ojala, Carl-Gösta (2022). Insamling av mänskliga kvarlevor i Tornedalen under 1800-tal och tidigt 1900-tal [The collection of human remains in the Torne Valley during the 1800s and early 1900s.] (in Swedish).
  39. ^ Heikki, Jörgen (14 June 2012). "Lapplands apostel var en framstående gravplundrare". Sveriges Radio (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 October 2024.
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  41. ^ Sannings- och försoningskommissionen för tornedalingar, kväner och lantalaiset (2023). Aivan ko meitä ei olis ollukhaan - Meän tottuus ja toelisuus [As if we never were - our truth and reality] (in Tornedalen Finnish). p. 323.
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  44. ^ "Arbetstugornas dag 1". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 17 August 2024.
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  51. ^ "Saivo".
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  59. ^ Carlander Fredriksson, Lisbeth (2000). Oj, så oskön sång! (in Swedish).
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  64. ^ ISOF, Meän Akateemi. "isof.se".
  65. ^ ""Haka inte upp dig på dräktpoliser – bär Tornedalsdräkten som du själv vill." – STR-T" (in Swedish). 4 October 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  66. ^ museum, Norrbottens (6 December 2024). "Historien om de två broscherna till 1912 års Norrbottensdräkt, och om hur vi fyllde en "lucka" i museets föremålssamling". Kulturmiljö vid Norrbottens museum (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  67. ^ a b "Kläder nationella minoriteter". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  68. ^ Pohjanen, Bengt (2022). Antti Mikkelinpoika Keksi - Anders Mickelsson Kexi 1622 - 2022 (in Tornedalen Finnish and Swedish).
  69. ^ "Meänkieli elämänsä kiikkulaudalla". Kaleva (in Finnish). Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  70. ^ Pohjanen, Bengt. "Hem". Bengt Pohjanen (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  71. ^ Aasa, Ahti (10 August 2023). ""Liikutuksia"". Sveriges Radio. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
  72. ^ "Rörelser - Första långfilmen på meänkieli". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 7 November 2024.
  73. ^ "Meänmaan flaku". 24 April 2017. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  74. ^ a b Alm, Helene (6 June 2014). "Eller varför inte en trasmatta?". Sveriges Radio (in Swedish). Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  75. ^ "Meänmaalle juhlapäivä ja lipulle mallisuoja". Yle Uutiset (in Finnish). 8 October 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  76. ^ Hannele Kenttä (15 July 2016). "Meän flakun päivää juhlittiin ympäri Tornionlaaksoa". Sveriges Radio (in Finnish). Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  77. ^ "Kvenflagget - Kvääniflaku". Ruijan kvääniliitto (in Norwegian). 5 April 2025. Retrieved 22 June 2025.
  78. ^ "Kvänfolkets dag 16 mars". Minoritet.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 22 June 2025.


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