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The Lion Sleeps Tonight

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For the TV episode, see The Lion Sleeps Tonight (Dexter).

Solomon Linda and the Tokens
Solomon Linda, whose group composed "Mbube", and the Tokens, who wrote "The Lion Sleeps Tonight"

"The Lion Sleeps Tonight" is a song originally written and first recorded in 1939 by Solomon Linda under the title "Mbube", through South African Gallo Record Company. In 1961, a version adapted into English by the doo-wop group the Tokens became a number-one hit in the United States. It earned millions in royalties from cover versions and film licensing. Lyrics of Linda's original version were written in Zulu, while those from the Tokens' adaptation were written by George David Weiss.

The song has been adapted and covered internationally by many pop and folk artists. It was first recorded in the United States by the Weavers in November 1951, and published under the title "Wimoweh" by a branch of Folkways Records in December of the same year.[1] The pop group Tight Fit made a cover of the song in 1982, reaching number one hit in the UK.

History

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Solomon Linda and "Mbube"

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See also: Mbube (genre), Isicathamiya, and Music of South Africa

First the Zulu man made the magic …

Solomon Linda, born in rural Natal,[3] was a migrant worker.[4] He held various jobs during the 1930s, including in kitchens and a furniture shop.[5] A beer hall singer,[6] he was also a member of a short-lived choir named the Evening Birds, which dissolved in the mid-1930s. Soon after, Linda formed a new group under the same name, with himself as soprano, Gilbert Madondo as alto, Boy Sibiya as tenor, and Samuel Mlangeni, Gideon Mkhize, and Owen Sikhakhane as basses.[7] They performed a cappella in the weekends and quickly grew a following.[8] Having moved to Johannesburg,[8] Linda became a packer at Eric Gallo's local record-pressing plant,[9] the first in sub-Saharan Africa and, at the time, the only one in black Africa.[10] It was not long before the firm's talent scout noticed the Evening Birds and invited them to the recording studio.[11] Back then, record firms eyed Zulu close-harmony vocal music, which appealed to migrant mineworkers.[12]

The Evening Birds recorded multiple songs at Gallo's studio, and during their second session, in 1939, they achieved their breakthrough.[13] The song, "Mbube"[a], was finished without prior rehearsal after three takes.[16] Performed in four-part harmony,[17] with Mlangeni, Mkhize, and Sikhakhane on bass, Madondo and Sibiya on middle tones, and Linda on a "soaring" soprano,[18] it is sung in a call and response format: the phrases of each section overlap with each other. It follows a cyclical structure.[17] The melody comprises three chords,[16] and the chord progression borrows from the marabi harmonic cycle predominant in twentieth-century South African music (I-IV-I6/4-V7-I).[17] Also featured in the recording are Peter Rezant on guitar, Emily Motsieloa on piano, and possibly Willie Gumede on banjo.[19]

Simon Lafraniere describes the melody as "tender … almost childish in its simplicity."[20] According to Rian Malan, "'Mbube' wasn't the most remarkable tune, but there was something terribly compelling about the underlying chant, a dense meshing of low male voices above which Linda yodeled and howled for two minutes, mostly making it up as he went along."[16] Of particular interest to commentators are the melody's final few seconds,[21] where Linda breaks out into a brief howl, "a haunting skein of fifteen notes."[2] This would later become the basis of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight".[21]

The lyrics, written in Zulu,[22] are said to document an episode of Linda's childhood when he chased a lion while herding cattle.[23][b]

The chorus, "wembube," is repeated throughout the song.[29][c] "Mbube" borrows strongly from Western influences introduced by missionaries and white singing troupes, one of them being the four-part harmony,[18] and Veit Erlmann goes as far as to imply that the main body "displays only a few features which can be said to be rooted in traditional performance practice."[30] As a child, Linda had been exposed to spirituals performed by the American Virginia Jubilee Singers.[31] Erlmann additionally notes that the song's triadic structure and harmonic progression resemble urban, Westernised genres[32] and that, on the contrary, the metrically-free introduction mirrors traditional dance music.[33] The vocal lines are intended to evoke tin whistles characteristic of South African street music.[18]

Gallo was impressed with "Mbube" and had it converted into 78 rpm records; it then aired on the rediffusion, a landline that transmitted music and news across black neighbourhoods.[13] The song achieved unprecedented success. With over 100,000 copies sold in Africa over the next nine years,[34] it was, at the time of its release, the best-selling South African record ever.[7] In fact, it was the first South African "hit."[35] "Mbube" nurtured Gallo's rise to the top of Africa's recording industry[36] amid the proliferation of South Africa's recording scene.[18] According to Erlmann, "Mbube" became "canonic for an entire generation of performers,"[37] evidenced by the fact that all subsequent South African music styles adopted the song's booming I-IV-V bass patterns.[37]

"Mbube" defined isicathamiya music.[38] A form of a cappella choral song,[39] it originated from an "eclectic choral/performance style based on elements of Zulu traditional music, rehearsed and performed after hours in migrant workers' hostels," as described by Gwen Ansell.[40] These elements are paired with Western, Christian influences.[41] While the genre was born in early-nineteenth-century Natal,[42] its "classic era," as indicated by Erlmann, arose from "Mbube".[35] From 1939 until the early 1950s, the Evening Birds were the face of isicathamiya.[43] Another genre associated with the composition is ingoma busuku, "urban working-class Zulu–Swazi … choral music patterned after African church choirs and combining [various] performance elements in a syncretic blend,"[42] which "Mbube" popularised among a vast, urban African audience.[44] Such was the song's influence that the word "mbube" simply became shorthand for male a cappella choral singing in South Africa.[45][e] The mbube style, notes David B. Coplan, "appealed across the class spectrum, melodised a growing African nationalism, created nostalgia for a lost society, and fused urban and rural values."[44]

While the song proved a monumental success, Linda did not profit from this.[46] Just after recording "Mbube",[47] he sold his rights to the song to Eric Gallo for ten shillings.[48][f] Being both illiterate[20] and unaware of what royalties were,[50] Linda's deal would later be recognised as unfair.[51] Additionally, Gallo paid Linda the equivalent of just $2 for the initial run of a few hundred records.[18]

Pete Seeger and "Wimoweh"

[edit]
See also: The Weavers

… Then the white man made the money.

In 1949, Alan Lomax, then working as folk music director for Decca Records, brought Solomon Linda's 78-rpm recording to the attention of his friend Pete Seeger, leader of the folk group The Weavers. In November 1951, the Weavers recorded an adapted version with brass, string orchestra and chorus and released it as a 78-rpm single titled "Wimoweh", a mishearing of the original song's chorus of "uyimbube." Their version contained the chanting chorus "Wimoweh" and Linda's improvised line. The Weavers credited the song as "Oral tradition", with arrangement by "Paul Campbell", later found to be a pseudonym used by The Weavers in order to claim royalties. It reached Billboard's top ten and became a staple of The Weavers' live repertoire, achieving further exposure on their best-selling The Weavers at Carnegie Hall LP album, recorded in 1955 and released in 1957.

Pete Seeger
Pete Seeger of the Weavers, who, in 1952, covered "Mbube" and thus popularised the tune in the United States

The song was recorded extensively by other folk revival groups such as the Kingston Trio, who released it in 1958. Miriam Makeba also covered the song in 1960, with the original title "Mbube" and giving writing credits to "J. Linda".

George Weiss, the Tokens, and "The Lion Sleeps Tonight"

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See also: Copyright infringement
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (The Tokens)
Problems playing this file? See media help.

In 1961, two RCA Records producers, Hugo Peretti and Luigi Creatore, hired Weiss to arrange a Doo-wop and Rhythm and blues cover of "Wimoweh" for the B-side of a 45-rpm single called "Tina", sung by group The Tokens. Weiss wrote the English lyrics beginning with, "In the jungle, the mighty jungle, The lion sleeps tonight..."[6] "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" was issued by RCA in that year, and it rocketed to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Weiss' "Abilene Music, Inc." was the publisher of this arrangement, and listed "Albert Stanton" (a pseudonym for "Al Brackman", the business partner of Pete Seeger's music publisher, Howie Richmond) as one of the song's writers or arrangers.[52]

Later developments and impact

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See also: The Lion King, A Lion's Trail, The Lion King (2019 film), and Black Is King

In 2000, South African journalist Rian Malan wrote a feature article for Rolling Stone in which he recounted Linda's story and estimated that the song had earned $15 million for its use in the Disney 1994 movie The Lion King alone. The piece prompted filmmaker François Verster to create the Emmy-winning documentary A Lion's Trail, released in 2002, which tells Linda's story while incidentally exposing the workings of the multi-million dollar corporate music publishing industry.

[edit]

Howie Richmond's claim of author's copyright could secure both the songwriter's royalties and his company's publishing share of the song earnings.[53]

Although Solomon Linda was listed as a performer on the record itself, The Weavers thought they had recorded a traditional Zulu song. Their managers, the publisher, and their attorneys knew otherwise because they had been contacted by — and had reached an agreement with — Eric Gallo of Gallo Record Company in South Africa. The Americans maintained, however, that South African copyrights were not valid because South Africa was not a signatory to U.S. copyright law. In the 1950s, after Linda's authorship was made clear, Pete Seeger sent $1000 to the South African artist. The folk singer also said he instructed TRO/Folkways to henceforth pay his share of authors' earnings to Linda. Seeger apparently trusted his publisher's word of honor and either saw no need, or was unable, to make sure these instructions were carried out.[53]

In July 2004, as a result of the publicity generated by Malan's article and the subsequent documentary, the song became the subject of a lawsuit between Linda's estate and Disney, claiming that the latter owed $1.6 million in royalties for the use of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" in the film and musical stage productions of The Lion King. At the same time, the Richmond Organization began to pay $3,000 annually to Linda's estate. In February 2006, the South African singer's descendants reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music Publishers, who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney, to place the earnings of the song in a trust.[54]

In 2012, "Mbube" fell into the public domain, owing to the copyright law of South Africa, while "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" is still in copyright. The copyright issues were also treated in the 2019 movie ReMastered: The Lion's Share.

"Mbube"
Single by Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds
B-sideNgi Hambiki[19]
Released1939
Recorded1939
StudioGallo Recording Studios
Genre
Length2:44
LabelGallo Record Company
Songwriter(s)
Audio
Mbube (Audio) on YouTube
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight"
Single by the Tokens
from the album The Lion Sleeps Tonight
A-side"Tina"
ReleasedOctober 1961[55]
Recorded1961
Genre
Length2:41
LabelRCA Victor
Songwriter(s)
Audio
The Lion Sleeps Tonight (Wimoweh) (Audio) on YouTube
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight"
Single by Robert John
from the album Robert John
B-side"Janet"
ReleasedDecember 1971
Genre
LabelAtlantic
Songwriter(s)
Producer(s)Hank Medress and Dave Appell
Robert John singles chronology
"When the Party Is Over"
(1970) 		"The Lion Sleeps Tonight"
(1971) 		"Hushabye"
(1972)
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight"
Single by Tight Fit
from the album Tight Fit
B-side"Rhythm, Movement And Throbbing"
ReleasedJanuary 1982
Recorded1981
GenrePop
Length3:18
LabelJive
Songwriter(s)
Producer(s)Tim Friese-Greene[58]
Tight Fit singles chronology
"Back to the Sixties Part II"
(1981) 		"The Lion Sleeps Tonight"
(1982) 		"Fantasy Island"
(1982)
Music video
"The Lion Sleeps Tonight" on YouTube

Charted singles

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The Tokens

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Certifications

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Certifications for "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" by The Tokens
Region Certification Certified units/sales
New Zealand (RMNZ)[68] Gold 15,000‡
United States (RIAA)[69] Gold 1,000,000^

^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.
‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.

Robert John

[edit]

Certifications

[edit]
Certifications for "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" by Robert John
Region Certification Certified units/sales
United States (RIAA)[80] Gold 1,000,000^

^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

Tight Fit

[edit]

Certifications

[edit]
Certifications for "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" by Tight Fit
Region Certification Certified units/sales
United Kingdom (BPI)[99] Gold 500,000^

^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

R.E.M.

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Zulu for "lion,"[14] or "the lion."[15]
  2. ^ Rian Malan presents a slightly different interpretation: that the lyrics refer to an lion-hunting incident in the Evening Birds' collective memory, not just in Linda's.[16] Veit Erlmann follows a similar lyrical interpretation but argues that "Mbube" was based on an older wedding song, in the same vein as many early isicathamiya songs.[24]
  3. ^ a b Some sources indicate "uyimbube" instead of "wembube,"[26] and one indicates "uyimbube-wo."[27]
  4. ^ Sources which write "uyimbube" instead of "wembube" translate it as "you're a lion."[28]
  5. ^ According to David B. Coplan, the ingoma busuku style adopted the name "mbube" after the song's release.[44]
  6. ^ Ten shillings in 1939 is worth $70 in 2025 (a shilling then being a twentieth of a pound, and a pound being worth $140.97 in 2025, the latter value was halved and rounded down).[49]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Library of Congress. Copyright Office. (1952). Catalog of Copyright Entries 1952 Published Music Jan-Dec 3D Ser Vol 6 Pt 5A. United States Copyright Office. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.
  2. ^ a b c Malan 2012, p. 57
  3. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 60
  4. ^ BBC 2006; Connor 2018; Muller 2008, p. 6
  5. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 61; Malan 2012, p. 59
  6. ^ a b Blair 2004; Lafraniere 2006
  7. ^ a b Erlmann 1996, p. 61
  8. ^ a b Malan 2012, p. 59
  9. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 159; Erlmann 1996, p. 61; Erlmann 2004, p. 271
  10. ^ Malan 2012, pp. 57, 60
  11. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 61; Malan 2012, p. 60; Phillips 2023
  12. ^ Ansell 2005, p. 50
  13. ^ a b Malan 2012, pp. 61–62
  14. ^ Erlmann 2004, p. 271; Muller 2008, p. 5; Phillips 2023
  15. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, p. 61
  16. ^ a b c d Malan 2012, p. 61
  17. ^ a b c Muller 2008, p. 7
  18. ^ a b c d e Phillips 2023
  19. ^ a b flatinternational
  20. ^ a b Lafraniere 2006
  21. ^ a b Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, p. 61
  22. ^ Connor 2018; Phillips 2023
  23. ^ Contreras 2006; Muller 2008, p. 5
  24. ^ Erlmann 1996, pp. 61–62
  25. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 62
  26. ^ Malan 2012, p. 63; Phillips 2023; Wilberforce 2020
  27. ^ Khumalo 2004
  28. ^ Malan 2012, p. 61; Phillips 2023; Wilberforce 2020
  29. ^ Phillips 2023; Wilberforce 2020
  30. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 65
  31. ^ Malan 2012, pp. 58–59
  32. ^ Erlmann 1996, pp. 65–66; Erlmann 2004, p. 271
  33. ^ Erlmann 1996, pp. 62, 65; Erlmann 2004, p. 271
  34. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 159; Malan 2012, p. 62; Muller 2008, p. 5
  35. ^ a b Erlmann 2004, p. 271
  36. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 159
  37. ^ a b Erlmann 1996, p. 66
  38. ^ Erlmann 2004, p. 271; Muller 2008, p. 102
  39. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 440; Erlmann 2004, p. 266
  40. ^ Ansell 2005, p. 327
  41. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 55
  42. ^ a b Coplan 2008, p. 440
  43. ^ Erlmann 2004, pp. 271, 273
  44. ^ a b c Coplan 2008, p. 160
  45. ^ Erlmann 2004, p. 271; Lafraniere 2006; Phillips 2023
  46. ^ Wilberforce 2020
  47. ^ Malan 2012, p. 71
  48. ^ Connor 2018; Khumalo 2004
  49. ^ Nye
  50. ^ Blair 2004; Muller 2008, p. 6
  51. ^ Contreras 2006
  52. ^ Malan 2012, p. 74
  53. ^ a b Malan 2012[page needed]
  54. ^ Robinson 2004
  55. ^ "Special Merit Singles". Billboard. 23 October 1961.
  56. ^ Stanley, Bob (2022). "Revival: Trad Jazz and Folk". Let's Do It - The Birth of Pop Music: A History. New York: Pegasus Books. p. 477.
  57. ^ Breihan, Tom (19 February 2020). "The Number Ones: Robert John's "Sad Eyes"". Stereogum. Retrieved 12 July 2023. In 1972, John recorded an adult-contempo cover of the Tokens' "The Lion Sleeps Tonight"...
  58. ^ Rice, Jo (1982). The Guinness Book of 500 Number One Hits (1st ed.). Enfield, Middlesex: Guinness Superlatives Ltd. p. 222. ISBN 0-85112-250-7.
  59. ^ "The Tokens – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  60. ^ "The Tokens – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  61. ^ "CHUM Hit Parade - December 11, 1961".
  62. ^ "flavour of new zealand - Lever hit parades". Flavourofnz.co.nz. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  63. ^ "Tokens: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  64. ^ "The Tokens Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  65. ^ "The Tokens Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  66. ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – The Tokens – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in German). GfK Entertainment charts. Retrieved 15 June 2018. To see peak chart position, click "TITEL VON The Tokens"
  67. ^ [1] [dead link]
  68. ^ "New Zealand single certifications – The Tokens – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Radioscope. Type The Lion Sleeps Tonight in the "Search:" field.
  69. ^ "American single certifications – The Tokens – The Lion Sleeps". Recording Industry Association of America.
  70. ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970-1992. St Ives, N.S.W.: Australian Chart Book. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
  71. ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 7602." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  72. ^ "Top RPM Adult Contemporary: Issue 5318." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  73. ^ "SA Charts 1965–March 1989". Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  74. ^ "Robert John Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  75. ^ "Robert John Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  76. ^ "Cash Box Top 100 3/18/72". Tropicalglen.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  77. ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Robert John – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in German). GfK Entertainment charts. Retrieved 25 November 2020. To see peak chart position, click "TITEL VON Robert John"
  78. ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1972/Top 100 Songs of 1972". Musicoutfitters.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  79. ^ "Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1972". Tropicalglen.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  80. ^ "American single certifications – Robert John – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Recording Industry Association of America.
  81. ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992 (illustrated ed.). St Ives, N.S.W.: Australian Chart Book. p. 310. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
  82. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  83. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  84. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Tracklisten. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  85. ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Lion Sleeps Tonight". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  86. ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – week 17, 1982" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  87. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  88. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  89. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  90. ^ "Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  91. ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  92. ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (in German). GfK Entertainment charts. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  93. ^ "Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ" (in Hungarian). Single (track) Top 40 lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
  94. ^ "National Top 100 Singles for 1982". Kent Music Report. 3 January 1983. Retrieved 22 January 2023 – via Imgur.
  95. ^ "Jaaroverzichten 1982". Ultratop. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  96. ^ "Top 100-Jaaroverzicht van 1982". Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  97. ^ "Jaaroverzichten – Single 1982". dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  98. ^ "Top 100 Single-Jahrescharts". GfK Entertainment (in German). offiziellecharts.de. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  99. ^ "British single certifications – Tight Fit – The Lion Sleeps Tonight". British Phonographic Industry.
  100. ^ "Íslenski Listinn Topp 40 (2.–8. apríl)". Dagblaðið Vísir (in Icelandic). 1 April 1993. p. 29. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  101. ^ "Árslistinn 1993". Dagblaðið Vísir (in Icelandic). 4 January 1994. p. 17. Retrieved 24 January 2021.

Bibliography

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Books and academic papers

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News articles

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Other media

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[edit]

Recordings

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  • "Mbube", performed by Solomon Linda and the Evening Birds
  • A failed take of "Mbube", by Solomon Linda and the Evening Birds
  • "Wimoweh", performed live by the Weavers
  • "The Lion Sleeps Tonight", performed by the Tokens
  • YouTube tribute channel FLORENCOM, containing over 200 iterations of "Mbube", "Wimoweh", and "The Lion Sleeps Tonight"

Commentary

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  • Commentary on "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" and the legal dispute and settlement surrounding it, by Richard Silverstein
  • 2010 BBC podcast on "The Lion Sleeps Tonight", hosted by Paul Gambaccini
  • Video comparing "Mbube" and "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" by VYIMBVBE
  • Documentary on Solomon Linda by VYIMBVBE
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