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Superstitions in Nigeria comprise a wide range of beliefs and practices that influence social behaviour, cultural traditions, and public discourse across the country. These beliefs are not confined to traditional African religions but are also prevalent among adherents of Christianity and Islam, forming a cross-religious phenomenon that affects individuals and communities irrespective of ethnic or regional identity.[1][2]

The term superstition is employed in both academic and popular Nigerian contexts to describe beliefs or practices that fall outside formal doctrine or scientific explanation but remain socially influential. Although the term can carry pejorative connotations in some scholarly traditions, within the Nigerian setting it is often used descriptively rather than evaluatively.[3] Superstitions in Nigeria encompass a range of domains, including health, education, legal proceedings, and economic activity, and are evident in both urban and rural environments.[4]

Historical background

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Superstitions in Nigeria have pre-colonial origins, deeply tied to traditional African religions that emphasise spirits, ancestors, and taboos. These beliefs provided frameworks for understanding life’s uncertainties through rituals, omens, and divination.[5] Colonial authorities and Christian missionaries often labelled these practices as primitive, attempting to replace them with Western education and religion.[6] Despite these efforts, superstitions endured, integrating with Islam and Christianity to form hybridised belief systems that remain influential today.[7][8]

Contemporary forms of superstition

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Superstitions permeate various aspects of Nigerian life, cutting across religious boundaries and affecting traditional, Islamic, and Christian communities, shaping behaviours in health, education, economic activities, and social interactions.[9][10][11]

Witchcraft accusations

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see also Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa

A ceremonial staff and sheath associated with Orisha Oko, created by the Yoruba people of Irawo village in the Oyo region, late 19th to early 20th century. Such ritual implements were believed to provide protection against malevolent forces, including witchcraft, and were central to agricultural and spiritual life.[12]

Belief in witchcraft is widespread across all religious groups, with accusations often targeting children, women, or the elderly, leading to severe consequences such as abuse, abandonment, or even death.[13][14] In Akwa Ibom, for instance, children accused of witchcraft face severe abuse, prompting interventions by organisations like Land of Hope.[15] Pentecostal churches, prevalent among Christians, exacerbate these issues through "deliverance" rituals that demonise accused individuals, often blending traditional fears of witchcraft with Christian eschatology.[16] Among Muslims, particularly in northern Nigeria, accusations of witchcraft (aljanu or jinns) are common, with some seeking Quranic exorcisms to expel malevolent spirits.[17] In urban areas, witchcraft accusations are expressed in Nigerian Pidgin English, with both Christians and Muslims attributing economic failures to spiritual curses.[18]

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Superstitions significantly influence health behaviours in Nigeria, affecting Christians, Muslims, and traditionalists alike across diverse ethnic groups. Pregnant women often adhere to dietary taboos, such as avoiding snails, bananas, or certain fruits, believed to cause miscarriage or spiritual harm to the unborn child, particularly among Igbo and Yoruba communities.[19] Among Muslims, some believe neglecting specific rituals, such as reciting Quranic verses during pregnancy, invites spiritual afflictions like jinn possession.[20]

Superstitions also hinder public health efforts, with some Christian and traditionalist communities in Enugu and Delta rejecting yellow fever vaccinations due to beliefs in spiritual protection over medical intervention.[21] Misconceptions about menstruation, epilepsy, and mental illness persist, often leading to stigmatisation and reliance on spiritual healers.[22] For instance, Yoruba Christians may attribute epilepsy to spiritual attacks, seeking church-led deliverance over medical treatment,[23] while northern Muslim communities sometimes link mental illness to jinn possession, consulting traditional malams.[24][25] In Akwa Ibom and Cross River, children accused of witchcraft face abuse or abandonment, driven by Christian and traditional beliefs in spiritual malevolence.[26] Similarly, Efik and Ibibio communities historically practiced twin sacrifice, viewing twins as omens, though missionary interventions have reduced this.[27] Superstitions also impede asthma management, with some attributing symptoms to spiritual causes, delaying medical care.[28] These beliefs underscore the need for culturally sensitive health interventions.

Disability and stigma

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Individuals with disabilities, such as albinism, autism, or physical impairments, are often viewed as cursed or supernatural across religious groups, resulting in social exclusion and limited access to education or employment.[29][30] In northern Nigeria, both Muslims and Christians may associate albinism with spiritual powers, leading to discrimination or ritualistic exploitation.[31] Among Igbo Christians, autism is sometimes linked to ogbanje (spirit children), prompting families to seek spiritual interventions over medical support.[32] Yoruba Muslims may view physical disabilities as divine tests or curses, influencing community attitudes towards inclusion.[29]

Economic and everyday beliefs

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Superstitions influence economic behaviours across religious divides, with beliefs in "money rituals"—sacrifices for wealth—common among Christians, Muslims, and traditionalists.[33] In urban areas, both Christian and Muslim traders may attribute business failures to spiritual curses, often expressed in Nigerian Pidgin English narratives.[34] Everyday superstitions, such as avoiding whistling at night to prevent summoning evil spirits, are widely recognised across Nigeria’s religious communities.[35][36] Architectural superstitions, such as avoiding building homes with entrances facing crossroads to prevent spiritual attacks, persist among Yoruba Christians and traditionalists.[37] Agricultural taboos, like those against duck rearing in Yoruba communities due to associations with bad luck, also remain prevalent.[38]

Education and superstitions

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Superstitious beliefs impact educational outcomes, affecting students across religious backgrounds. A 2024 incident involved a UTME candidate refusing to answer exam questions due to a belief that it would bring bad luck, reflecting how superstitions influence academic decisions among Christians and Muslims alike.[39] In Christian communities, some students avoid studying at night, fearing it attracts evil spirits, while Muslim students may wear amulets inscribed with Quranic verses to enhance academic success.[40]

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Nollywood, Nigeria’s prolific film industry, frequently depicts witchcraft, spiritual warfare, and possession, reinforcing superstitious beliefs across religious communities.[41] These narratives blend traditional motifs, such as juju, with modern anxieties, like urban wealth disparities, shaping perceptions among Christians, Muslims, and traditionalists alike.[42]

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Witchcraft accusations have severe consequences, particularly for children, who face abuse or abandonment across religious communities.[13][43] Nigeria’s Child Rights Act (2003) criminalises child abuse, but enforcement is weak, especially in rural areas.[44] Organisations like Land of Hope, founded by Anja Ringgren Lovén, rescue and rehabilitate accused children, providing education and safe havens.[15][45]

Government and NGO responses

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The Nigerian government, through the National Orientation Agency, has launched campaigns to combat harmful superstitions, targeting beliefs that affect Christians, Muslims, and traditionalists.[46] International organisations like UNICEF support initiatives to protect children and promote scientific education while respecting cultural traditions.[47] These efforts aim to balance cultural sensitivity with the need to address harmful practices across all religious groups.

Regional variations

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Superstitions in Nigeria vary across ethnic and religious groups, yet their influence transcends traditional African religions, Islam, and Christianity, reflecting their deep integration into the nation’s cultural fabric.[48]

  • Yoruba: Among the Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria, superstitions are deeply rooted in Ifa divination and orisha worship, shaping taboos that influence marriage, farming, and health practices among traditionalists and Christians alike.[49] For example, the belief that a pregnant woman should avoid eating snails to prevent her child from being sluggish persists among Yoruba Christians, blending traditional taboos with Christian practices.[50] Yoruba Muslims often believe that jinns (spiritual beings) cause misfortune, leading to the use of Quranic amulets or recitations for protection, a practice that merges Islamic theology with local superstitions.[51] In urban Yoruba communities, superstitions influence architecture, with some Christians and traditionalists avoiding building houses with entrances facing crossroads to prevent spiritual attacks.[52] Pentecostal Yoruba Christians frequently engage in "deliverance" sessions to ward off evil spirits, reflecting a synthesis of Christian beliefs with traditional fears of witchcraft.[53] Superstitions about disabilities, such as viewing albinism as a sign of spiritual power, persist among both Christian and Muslim Yoruba, contributing to social stigma.[54]
  • Igbo: In southeastern Nigeria, Igbo superstitions are mediated by dibia (traditional healers), with beliefs in ogbanje (spirit children who die and are reborn repeatedly) affecting family dynamics across religious lines.[55] Among Igbo Christians, ogbanje beliefs persist, with some attributing recurring child deaths to spiritual causes and seeking deliverance in Pentecostal churches, a practice that mirrors traditional rituals.[56] Igbo Muslims, though a minority, incorporate superstitions such as avoiding certain foods during Ramadan to prevent spiritual pollution, a belief rooted in local traditions rather than Islamic doctrine.[57] A widespread superstition among both Christian and Muslim Igbo is that sweeping at night invites evil spirits, leading to altered household practices.[58] In urban Igbo communities, witchcraft accusations persist among Christians, often linked to economic failures, as seen in Nigerian Pidgin English narratives in markets and churches.[59] Superstitions about disabilities, such as associating autism with spiritual curses, affect both Christian and Muslim Igbo, limiting access to education.[29]
  • Hausa-Fulani: In northern Nigeria, Hausa-Fulani superstitions blend Islamic practices with pre-Islamic beliefs, such as the veneration of bori spirits, which are thought to cause illness or misfortune among both Muslims and traditionalists.[60] Among Hausa-Fulani Muslims, superstitions about aljanu (jinns) are prevalent, with many using Quranic verses or talismans to ward off these spirits, integrating Islamic mysticism with local traditions.[61] Hausa-Fulani Christians, particularly in urban areas like Kano, often attribute misfortunes to witchcraft, seeking protection through church prayers that echo traditional rituals.[62] A common superstition across both religious groups is the belief that owls or certain animals are omens of death, influencing behaviours in Muslim and Christian households.[63] In urban settings, Hausa-Fulani Christians and Muslims share superstitions about economic failures caused by spiritual curses, often expressed in Pidgin English narratives in markets.[64]

Comparative perspectives

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Similar superstitious practices exist across West Africa. In Ghana, child witchcraft accusations parallel Nigeria’s challenges, affecting Christian and traditional communities.[65] Benin’s Vodun practices share similarities with Yoruba orisha worship, while Afro-Brazilian religions like Candomblé and Caribbean practices like Obeah reflect Nigerian influences from the transatlantic slave trade.[66]

Scholarly debates

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Scholars debate the term "superstition" as potentially Eurocentric, arguing it misrepresents African belief systems that span traditional, Islamic, and Christian contexts.[67] Others advocate its use to highlight harmful practices, such as witchcraft accusations, while stressing cultural nuance.[68] These debates underscore the need to address superstitions as a cultural phenomenon that transcends religious boundaries.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Odejobi, Cecilia Omobola (2013). "An Overview of Taboo and Superstition among the Yoruba of Southwest of Nigeria". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 4 (2): 221–226. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n2p221.
  2. ^ Adeboye, Olufunke (2020). "Religion and the Public Space in Nigeria: Contesting the Rules of Engagement". Journal of African Cultural Studies. 32 (3): 285–302. doi:10.1080/13696815.2020.1723567 (inactive 31 May 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2025 (link)
  3. ^ Adelakun, Abimbola (2018). "Superstition and Statecraft: Political Symbolism in Nigerian Governance". African Studies Review. 61 (4): 140–158. doi:10.1017/asr.2018.88.
  4. ^ Oladipo, Olusegun (2024-07-31). "10 Funny Superstitious Beliefs Every Nigerian Has Heard". Pulse Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  5. ^ Ajose, Oladele A. (July 1957). "Preventive Medicine and Superstition in Nigeria". Africa. 27 (3): 268–274. doi:10.2307/1156634. JSTOR 1156634.
  6. ^ Peel, J. D. Y. (2000). Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba. Indiana University Press. pp. 88–102. ISBN 978-0-253-21339-6.
  7. ^ Adebanwi, Wale (2012). "Globalisation and the Resilience of Traditional Paradigms: Yoruba Religion in Contemporary Nigeria". Journal of Religion in Africa. 42 (3): 297–324. doi:10.1163/15700666-12341234.
  8. ^ Igwe, Leo (2024-08-15). "Belief in Witchcraft is Rooted in Ignorance, Superstition – Leo Igwe". The Sun Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  9. ^ Olupona, Jacob K. (2014). African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–70. ISBN 978-0-19-979058-6.
  10. ^ Igwe, Leo (2024-08-15). "Belief in Witchcraft is Rooted in Ignorance, Superstition – Leo Igwe". The Sun Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  11. ^ Higgins, James (December 1955). "Irish Missionaries in a Pagan Land". African Missionary Magazine. 83 (10 (315)). Cork, Ireland: Society of African Missions: 6–8.
  12. ^ Drewal, Henry John (1989). Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought. Center for African Art. ISBN 9780945802046. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  13. ^ a b Busari, Stephanie (2021-10-11). "Fighting Superstition: How One Woman is Saving Nigeria's 'Witch Children'". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  14. ^ DW (2022-05-20). "Deadly Superstitions: Nigeria's 'Witch Children'". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  15. ^ a b Ho, Olivia (2022-10-17). "Land of Hope: Rescuing Nigeria's 'Witch Children'". My Modern Met. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  16. ^ Ellis, Stephen (2007). "Witch-Hunting in Modern Africa". The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War. NYU Press. pp. 201–220. ISBN 978-0-8147-2238-1.
  17. ^ Last, Murray (1967). "Islam and Traditional Beliefs in Northern Nigeria". The Sokoto Caliphate. Longman. pp. 112–130. ISBN 978-0-582-64141-9.
  18. ^ Akande, Akinmade T. (2021). "Language and Superstition in Urban Nigeria". In Akande, Akinmade T.; Salami, Oladipo (eds.). Current Trends in Nigerian Pidgin English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 134–150. ISBN 978-3-11-072665-7.
  19. ^ Maduforo, A. N. (2010). "Superstitions and Nutrition Among Pregnant Women in Nwangele Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria". Journal of Research in National Development. 8 (2). doi:10.4314/jorind.v8i2.66832.
  20. ^ Onyeiwu, Steve (2011). "Islam in Igboland: The Growth and Challenges of Muslim Communities in South-Eastern Nigeria". African Journal of Religion. 3 (1): 45–60.
  21. ^ Odogwu, Emeka (2021-01-25). "Superstition, Ill-equipped PHCs Threaten Yellow Fever Vaccination in Enugu, Delta". Premium Times. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  22. ^ Ogunjuyigbe, Peter O. (2004). "The Influence of Traditional Beliefs on Health-Seeking Behaviour in Nigeria". African Journal of Reproductive Health. 8 (2): 98–111. doi:10.2307/3583183. hdl:1807/3922. JSTOR 3583183.
  23. ^ Adebayo, Akinwumi (2000). "Superstitions and Economic Behaviour in Nigeria". Culture, Politics, and Money Among the Yoruba. Routledge. pp. 145–160. ISBN 978-0-415-87392-5.
  24. ^ Olupona, Jacob K. (2014). African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–70. ISBN 978-0-19-979058-6.
  25. ^ Ameh, John (2024-10-12). "Mental Health, Witchcraft, and Demonic Possession". ThisDay. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  26. ^ Busari, Stephanie (2024-09-23). "The Nigerian Children Branded as Witches". BBC News. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  27. ^ Curry, Andrew (2014-09-18). "Missionaries in Remote Nigeria Save Twins from Sacrifice". CBC Radio. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  28. ^ Okoli, Chukwuma (2021-05-05). "Superstition, Illiteracy Major Challenges in Tackling Asthma – NTS". Daily Post Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  29. ^ a b c Omiegbe, Odirin (2023). "Culture and Its Influence on Peoples' Behaviour towards Education of Persons with Disabilities in Nigeria". In Chandan, Maheshkar (ed.). Handbook of Research on Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vernon Press. pp. 195–210. ISBN 978-1-64889-779-5.
  30. ^ Etieyibo, Edwin; Omiegbe, Odirin (2016). "Religion, Culture, and Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities in Nigeria". African Journal of Disability. 5 (1): 192. doi:10.4102/ajod.v5i1.192. PMC 5433448. PMID 28730043.
  31. ^ Okwunna, Chinenye (2019-06-13). "Living with Albinism in Nigeria: A Battle Against Stigma and Superstition". BBC News. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  32. ^ Igwe, Leo (2024-08-15). "Belief in Witchcraft is Rooted in Ignorance, Superstition – Leo Igwe". The Sun Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  33. ^ Essien, D. (2014). "Economic Implications of Superstition and the Defacement of Currency Notes: Nigeria Experience". African Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development. 3 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1504/AJESD.2014.061635.
  34. ^ Akande, Akinmade T. (2021). "Language and Superstition in Urban Nigeria". In Akande, Akinmade T.; Salami, Oladipo (eds.). Current Trends in Nigerian Pidgin English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 134–150. ISBN 978-3-11-072665-7.
  35. ^ Oladipo, Olusegun (2024-07-31). "10 Funny Superstitious Beliefs Every Nigerian Has Heard". Pulse Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  36. ^ Adebayo, Temitope (2023-09-10). "Nigerian Superstitions: Myths That Shape Our Culture". Scrollforth Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  37. ^ Adeagbo, Akinsola Olufemi (2018). The Role of a Culture of Superstition in Shaping the Built Environment of Ile-Ife and Osogbo, Nigeria. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 78–92. ISBN 978-1-5275-1057-9.
  38. ^ Akinwumi, O. S. (2013). "Taboos, Superstitions, Myths and Stigmas Against Duck Production in South-West Nigeria". Wayamba Journal of Animal Science. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  39. ^ Oladimeji, Ramon (2024-04-25). "UTME Candidate Refuses to Attempt Questions Due to Superstition". The Guardian Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  40. ^ Adebayo, Temitope (2023-09-10). "Nigerian Superstitions: Myths That Shape Our Culture". Scrollforth Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  41. ^ Okome, Onookome (2013). "Nollywood and the Representation of Superstition". Global Nollywood: The Transnational Dimensions of an African Video Film Industry. Indiana University Press. pp. 123–140. ISBN 978-0-253-00942-5.
  42. ^ Haynes, Jonathan (2010). "A Literature Review: Nigerian and Ghanaian Videos". Journal of African Cinemas. 2 (1): 47–62. doi:10.1386/jac.2.1.47_1 (inactive 31 May 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2025 (link)
  43. ^ BBC (2019-07-08). "Nigeria's 'Witch Children': The Fight Against Superstition". BBC News. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  44. ^ Nwazuoke, Anthony (2018-04-05). "Child Witchcraft Accusations and the Law in Nigeria". Vanguard Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  45. ^ Lovén, Anja Ringgren (2023-02-15). "Rescuing Nigeria's Witch Children: Our Work at Land of Hope". Land of Hope. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  46. ^ NOA (2020-11-10). "Campaign Against Superstition and Stigma in Nigeria". National Orientation Agency. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  47. ^ UNICEF (2021-09-20). "Protecting Children from Harmful Practices in Nigeria". UNICEF Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  48. ^ Higgins, James (December 1955). "Irish Missionaries in a Pagan Land". African Missionary Magazine. 83 (10 (315)). Cork, Ireland: Society of African Missions: 6–8.
  49. ^ Omobola, Odejobi Cecilia (2013). "An Overview of Taboo and Superstition among the Yoruba of Southwest of Nigeria". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 4 (2): 221–226. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n2p221.
  50. ^ Oladipo, Olusegun (2024-07-31). "10 Funny Superstitious Beliefs Every Nigerian Has Heard". Pulse Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  51. ^ Olupona, Jacob K. (2014). African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–70. ISBN 978-0-19-979058-6.
  52. ^ Adeagbo, Akinsola Olufemi (2018). The Role of a Culture of Superstition in Shaping the Built Environment of Ile-Ife and Osogbo, Nigeria. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 78–92. ISBN 978-1-5275-1057-9.
  53. ^ Adebanwi, Wale (2012). "Globalisation and the Resilience of Traditional Paradigms: Yoruba Religion in Contemporary Nigeria". Journal of Religion in Africa. 42 (3): 297–324. doi:10.1163/15700666-12341234.
  54. ^ Omiegbe, Odirin (2023). "Culture and Its Influence on Peoples' Behaviour towards Education of Persons with Disabilities in Nigeria". In Chandan, Maheshkar (ed.). Handbook of Research on Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vernon Press. pp. 195–210. ISBN 978-1-64889-779-5.
  55. ^ Okonkwo, Clara (2015). Ogbanje in Igbo Cosmology. University Press PLC. pp. 45–67. ISBN 978-978-940-159-8.
  56. ^ Igwe, Leo (2024-08-15). "Belief in Witchcraft is Rooted in Ignorance, Superstition – Leo Igwe". The Sun Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  57. ^ Onyeiwu, Steve (2011). "Islam in Igboland: The Growth and Challenges of Muslim Communities in South-Eastern Nigeria". African Journal of Religion. 3 (1): 45–60.
  58. ^ Adebayo, Temitope (2023-09-10). "Nigerian Superstitions: Myths That Shape Our Culture". Scrollforth Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  59. ^ Akande, Akinmade T. (2021). "Language and Superstition in Urban Nigeria". In Akande, Akinmade T.; Salami, Oladipo (eds.). Current Trends in Nigerian Pidgin English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 134–150. ISBN 978-3-11-072665-7.
  60. ^ Masquelier, Adeline (2001). "Prayer, Piety, and the Power of Bori in Northern Nigeria". Journal of Religion in Africa. 31 (4): 410–434. doi:10.1163/157006601X00236 (inactive 31 May 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2025 (link)
  61. ^ Last, Murray (1967). "Islam and Traditional Beliefs in Northern Nigeria". The Sokoto Caliphate. Longman. pp. 112–130. ISBN 978-0-582-64141-9.
  62. ^ DW (2022-05-20). "Deadly Superstitions: Nigeria's 'Witch Children'". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  63. ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel (2024-03-15). "The Strange Tales About the Elephant Being the Ancestor of Humans". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  64. ^ Akande, Akinmade T. (2021). "Language and Superstition in Urban Nigeria". In Akande, Akinmade T.; Salami, Oladipo (eds.). Current Trends in Nigerian Pidgin English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 134–150. ISBN 978-3-11-072665-7.
  65. ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel (2024-03-15). "The Strange Tales About the Elephant Being the Ancestor of Humans". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  66. ^ Olupona, Jacob K. (2014). African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–85. ISBN 978-0-19-979058-6.
  67. ^ Idowu, E. Bolaji (1973). "The Concept of Superstition in African Traditional Religion". Journal of Religion in Africa. 5 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1163/157006673X00027 (inactive 31 May 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2025 (link)
  68. ^ Ashforth, Adam (2005). "The Anthropology of African Witchcraft". Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa. University of Chicago Press. pp. 45–62. ISBN 978-0-226-02974-0.
[edit]
  • Land of Hope – Organisation addressing child witchcraft accusations in Nigeria
  • UNICEF Nigeria – Initiatives to combat harmful traditional practices
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