Siege of Silistria (1854)

Siege of Silistria
	Part of the Crimean War
	; Siege of Silistria by Bogdan Willewalde
Date	11 May – 23 June 1854
Location	Silistria, Ottoman Bulgaria44°7′9.01″N 27°15′40.9″E / 44.1191694°N 27.261361°E
Result	Ottoman victory
Belligerents
Ottoman Empire	Russian Empire
Commanders and leaders
Omar Pasha; Musa Pasha †; Robert Cannon (Behram Pasha); Hüseyin Rıfat Pasha;	Ivan Paskevich; Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov; Karl Schilder †; Dmitriy Selvan †;
Strength
12,000–18,000 Ottoman troops, including Albanian and Egyptian units	50,000–90,000 men and 266 guns
Casualties and losses
~1,400 killed	~2,500 killed and 1,783 wounded
	Silistria class=notpageimage\| Location of Silistria in present-day Bulgaria

The siege of Silistria, or siege of Silistra, was a key engagement in the Crimean War, fought from 11 May to 23 June 1854 between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire in present-day Bulgaria. The Russian army, numbering up to 90,000 men with 266 guns, attempted to capture the Danubian fortress of Silistria as part of a broader strategy to outflank Ottoman defences and pre-empt an expected Allied landing at Varna. The garrison, 12,000 to 18,000 Ottoman troops and Egyptian auxiliaries, was bolstered by British military advisers and successfully withstood a six-week siege.^[6]

The operation was shaped by diplomatic and regional tensions. Russia hoped for a general Balkan uprising and misjudged the likelihood of Austrian or Serbian neutrality. Austria, concerned that a Russian advance might provoke unrest among its own Serb population, mobilised 280,000 troops along the Danube and warned Russia against crossing the river. At the same time, Anglo-French troops began arriving in Varna, and a joint Austrian–Ottoman convention granted Austria the right to occupy the Danubian Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia.^[5]

Despite capturing key outworks and preparing a final assault, the Russians abruptly lifted the siege just hours before the planned storming of the citadel. Orders to retreat were issued by Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich following imperial instructions from Nicholas I of Russia, who had resisted calls for evacuation until faced with isolation and a growing Allied threat. The siege marked Russia's largest siege effort against an Ottoman fortress to date and its failure forced a withdrawal from the Danubian principalities, ending that phase of the war.^[5]

Background

In early 1854, the Russian Empire sought to pressure the Ottoman government and destabilise its Balkan provinces by launching a military campaign south of the Danube. On 20 March, two Russian army corps crossed into Ottoman territory. In the east, a 50,000-strong force under General Alexander von Lüders advanced from Bessarabia into Dobruja, seizing several key positions between 23 and 29 March.^[2] By the beginning of April, Russian troops had reached the defensive line known as Trajan's Wall, located about 30 miles east of Silistria.^[2]

Meanwhile, the central Russian army group under Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov moved toward Silistria (now Silistra), with the aim of capturing the fortress. Russian war plans envisioned the occupation of major Ottoman strongholds in the region, including Silistria, Vidin, Rusçuk (now Ruse), Galatz (now Galați), and Brailov (now Brăila), as part of a wider effort to secure a foothold in the Balkans and block Allied intervention through the Black Sea coast.^[7]

The fortress at Silistria was held by an Ottoman force of 12,000 to 18,000 men under Ferik Musa Hulusi Pasha. The defenders included Albanian and Egyptian units and were supported by several British officers who arrived prior to the siege.^[2] A second Ottoman army of around 40,000 to 45,000 under Omar Pasha remained stationed at Şumnu (now Shumen) observing the situation.^[2]^[8]^[a]

Siege

Silistria, built upon ancient Roman foundations, had been developed by the Ottomans into a major fortress and trading hub. It featured a fortified inner citadel and an outer ring of ten modern forts.^[10] The Ottoman garrison was composed largely of Albanian and Egyptian soldiers,^[8] commanded by Musa Pasha. The defenders were assisted by approximately six British officers, including Robert Cannon (Behram Pasha), Captain James Butler, and Lieutenant Charles Nasmyth.^[b] Both Butler and Nasmyth, officers of the Ceylon Rifles and veterans of the East India Company army, arrived before the siege began and volunteered their services to the garrison.^[12]

The Russian vanguard reached Silistria on 5 April. General Karl Schilder, who had taken the fortress in 1829, resumed command, this time accompanied by Lieutenant-Colonel Eduard Totleben, responsible for siege works and fortification.^[2] Although initial Russian plans envisioned a swift encirclement, they failed to completely isolate the town, allowing Ottoman forces to continue resupply operations.^[2] On 22 April, Field Marshal Prince Ivan Paskevich assumed command of the Danube campaign and arrived from Warsaw to Bucharest.^[13] Although entrusted with overall authority, Paskevich remained sceptical of the campaign's prospects, later urging a withdrawal in view of mounting pressure from Austria and signs of Allied mobilisation.^[14]

The most intense fighting occurred on 28 May, when the Ottoman garrison launched a sally that triggered an assault on the key outwork of Arab Tabia. Russian forces briefly captured the position, but lacking reinforcements, they were forced to withdraw after heavy casualties.^[15] General Dmitriy Selvan was mortally wounded in the attack, while official Russian losses totalled around 700.^[16] Ottoman proclamations stated their own losses as 189.^[16] On 2 June, Musa Pasha was killed by shrapnel while at prayer; British officers Butler and Nasmyth temporarily assumed leadership of the garrison.^[17] In reports to Nicholas I, Paskevich credited the defenders' tenacity to the strategic input of foreign officers.^[5]

On 10 June, Paskevich reported being shaken by a nearby shell burst, after which he retired to Warsaw, officially due to health reasons.^[10] Command passed to General Gorchakov. Three days later, Schilder was severely wounded and died shortly afterward. On 20 June, Arab Tabia was recaptured by Russian forces.^[10]

On 21 June, final preparations were underway for an all-out assault on the main fortress, scheduled for 4 am^[5]^[18] Yet only hours before the operation, Gorchakov received orders, originating from Paskevich on 13 June and endorsed by the Tsar, to abandon the siege:

The siege of Silistria must be raised if the fortress is not yet taken at the receipt of this letter.

— Nicholas I of Russia to Field Marshal Paskevich, 13 June 1854, ^[18]

The sudden withdrawal was triggered by multiple strategic concerns: Austria had signed a convention with the Ottomans on 14 June granting it rights to occupy the Danubian Principalities, while Allied forces were now massing at Varna, with 50,000 French and 20,000 British troops in theatre.^[5] On 24 June, the Russian army withdrew across the Danube, dismantling the pontoon bridge behind them. The Ottomans did not pursue. Russian losses during the siege are estimated at 2,500 dead and 1,783 wounded.^[4]

Aftermath

Although the defenders of Silistria held firm, most scholars agree that the lifting of the siege was ultimately driven less by battlefield outcomes than by external diplomatic and military pressures.^[19]^[18]^[5] Austria had concentrated a large force, reportedly up to 280,000 troops^[3], along the borders of Wallachia and Moldavia, and had warned Russia against further advances across the Danube.^[3] Fearing escalation, Russian commanders grew increasingly cautious as the regional situation shifted.

By late June, Allied reinforcements began arriving in strength. On 27 June 1854, 30,000 British troops landed at Varna, followed by 12,000 French soldiers under Vice-Admiral Bruat three days later.^[20] Combined with Austria's decision to sign a convention with the Ottomans allowing it to temporarily occupy the Danubian Principalities,^[5] these developments left Russia diplomatically isolated. The Russian high command, under mounting pressure, ordered a general withdrawal. To avoid the appearance of defeat, the retreat was officially presented as a "strategic withdrawal".^[5]

Following the evacuation, Emperor Nicholas I accepted the Austro-Ottoman occupation of Wallachia and Moldavia, effectively ending Russia's military presence south of the Danube and bringing the Danubian phase of the Crimean War to a close.^[6] With the Russian threat receding, Ottoman forces under Omar Pasha crossed the Danube and advanced into Wallachia, where they engaged Russian forces at Giurgevo in early July 1854.^[21]

Notes

^ Omar Pasha was originally a Serbian Orthodox Christian named Mihajlo Latas, who later converted to Islam and became a high-ranking Ottoman commander.^[9]
^ Nasmyth was also a war correspondent for The Times of London. His dispatches, written from April to June 1854, offered detailed coverage of the siege until his wounding and subsequent death.^[11]

References

Citations

^ Sweetman 2014, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Badem 2010, p. 183.
^ ^a ^b ^c Badem 2010, p. 184.
^ ^a ^b Ponting 2011, p. 65.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Badem 2010, p. 186.
^ ^a ^b Ágoston and Masters 2010, p. 162.
^ Badem 2010, pp. 182–183.
^ ^a ^b Ágoston and Masters 2010, p. 161.
^ Cuvalo 2010, p. 138.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ponting 2011, p. 64.
^ Reid 2000, p. 256.
^ Reid 2000, p. 254.
^ Ponting 2011, p. 62.
^ Badem 2010, pp. 183–184.
^ Russell 1865, p. 17.
^ ^a ^b Badem 2010, p. 185.
^ Jaques & Showalter 2007, p. 945.
^ ^a ^b ^c Baumgart 2020, p. 110.
^ Hötte 2017, p. 7.
^ The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal 1858, p. 241.
^ Small 2018, p. 63.

Sources

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Cuvalo, A. (2010). The A to Z of Bosnia and Herzegovina. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7647-7.
The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. Arch. Constable & Comp. 1858.
Hötte, H.H.A.; Demeter, G.; Turbucs, D. (2017). Atlas of Southeast Europe: Geopolitics and History. Volume Three: 1815–1926. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-36181-2.
Jaques, T.; Showalter, D.E. (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first Century. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33539-6.
Ponting, Clive (15 February 2011). The Crimean War: The Truth Behind the Myth. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4070-9311-6.
Reid, J.J. (2000). Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839-1878. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des östlichen Europa. F. Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-07687-6.
Russell, W.H. (1865). General Todleben's History of the Defence of Sebastopol, 1854-5: A Review. Tinsley Brothers.
Small, H. (2018). The Crimean War: Europe's Conflict with Russia. History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-8742-4.
Sweetman, J. (2014). Crimean War. Essential Histories. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-97650-7.
Baumgart, Winfried (9 January 2020). The Crimean War: 1853–1856. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-08345-5.