Sejong the Great

"Sejong" redirects here. For the city, see Sejong City. For other uses, see Sejong (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Sejo of Joseon.

Sejong the Great 세종대왕 世宗大王
Posthumous portrait, 1973
King of Joseon
Reign	18 September 1418 – 8 April 1450
Enthronement	Geunjeongjeon Hall, Gyeongbokgung, Hanseong
Predecessor	Taejong
Successor	Munjong
Regent	Crown Prince Yi Hyang (1439–1450)
Crown Prince of Joseon
Tenure	8 July 1418 – 18 September 1418
Predecessor	Crown Prince Yi Che
Successor	Crown Prince Yi Hyang
Born	Yi To (1397-05-15)15 May 1397 Junsu-bang, Hanseong, Joseon
Died	8 April 1450(1450-04-08) (aged 52) Grand Prince Yeongeung's Mansion, Hanseong, Joseon
Burial	Yeongneung Mausoleum, Yeoju, South Korea
Spouse(s)	Queen Soheon ​ ​ (m. 1408; died 1446)​
Issue among others...	Munjong of Joseon Sejo of Joseon
Names Yi To (이도; 李祹) Era name and dates Adopted the era name of the Ming dynasty: Yeongnak (Yongle) (영락; 永樂): 1418–1424 Honghui (Hongxi) (홍희; 洪熙): 1425 Seondeok (Xuande) (선덕; 宣德): 1426–1435 Jeongtong (Zhengtong) (정통; 正統): 1436–1449 Gyeongtae (Jingtai) (경태; 景泰): 1450 Posthumous name Joseon: Great King Jangheon with Cultured Sagacity, Martial Wisdom, Excellent Benevolence and Brilliant Filial Piety (장헌영문예무인성명효대왕; 莊憲英文睿武仁聖明孝大王) Ming dynasty: Jangheon (장헌; 莊憲) Temple name Sejong (세종; 世宗)
Clan	Jeonju Yi
Dynasty	Yi
Father	Taejong of Joseon
Mother	Queen Wongyeong
Religion	Korean Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism) → Korean Buddhism
Korean name
Hangul	세종
Hanja	世宗
RR	Sejong
MR	Sejong
Birth name
Hangul	이도
Hanja	李祹
RR	I Do
MR	I To
Courtesy name
Hangul	원정
Hanja	元正
RR	Wonjeong
MR	Wŏnjŏng
Childhood name
Hangul	막동
Hanja	莫同
RR	Makdong
MR	Maktong

Sejong (Korean: 세종; Hanja: 世宗; 15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (세종대왕; 世宗大王), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as the greatest ruler in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language.

Initially titled Grand Prince Chungnyeong (충녕대군; 忠寧大君), he was the third son of King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong. In 1418, Sejong replaced his eldest brother, Yi Che, as crown prince; a few months later, Taejong voluntarily abdicated the throne in Sejong's favor. In the early years of Sejong's reign, King Emeritus Taejong retained vast powers, most notably absolute executive and military power, and continued to govern until his death in 1422.

Sejong reinforced Korean Confucian and neo-Confucian policies, and enacted major legal amendments (공법; 貢法). He personally created and promulgated the Korean alphabet, encouraged advancements in science and technology, and introduced measures to stimulate economic growth. He launched military campaigns to the north and implemented a relocation policy (사민정책; 徙民政策), establishing settlements in the newly conquered areas. He also ordered the military campaign against Tsushima island of 1419.

From 1439, he became increasingly ill and his eldest son, Crown Prince Yi Hyang, acted as regent. Sejong died on 8 April 1450.

Names and titles

"Sejong" is the name by which he is most widely known. It is a temple name: a posthumous title that was given to him on the 19th day, 3rd month of 1450. Historian Gari Ledyard roughly translates its meaning as "epochal ancestor". Sejong's birth name was Yi To (이도; 李祹). In the 2nd month of 1408, Yi To was granted the name "Ch'ungnyŏng" (충녕; 忠寧) and the title "Prince" (군; 君). In the 5th month of 1413, Ch'ungnyŏng was granted the title "Grand Prince" (대군; 大君). On the 27th day, 6th month of 1418, Ch'ungnyŏng was granted the courtesy name "Wŏnjŏng" (원정; 元正).

After his death, Ming granted him the title of Changhŏn (장헌; 莊憲; Pinyin: Zhuāngxiàn). His full posthumous title was Great King Changhŏn Yŏngmun Yemu Insŏng Myŏnghyo (장헌 영문 예무 인성 명효 대왕; 世宗莊憲英文睿武仁聖明孝大王).

Sejong was reportedly popularly called the "Yao-Shun East of the Sea" (해동요순; 海東堯舜; Haedong Yosun). The name references the legendary wise Chinese sage kings Yao and Shun. "East of the Sea" refers to Korea.

Early life

Yi To was born on 15 May 1397 in Chunsubang, Hanyang (Seoul), Joseon as the third son of father Grand Prince Chŏngan and a lady of the Yeoheung Min clan. Yi To's father was the fifth son of the founding and reigning king of Joseon, Taejo (r. 1392–1398).

Yi To was born just years after the founding of Joseon. His father, Grand Prince Chŏngan, had played a major role in the dynasty's establishment. In 1398, Chŏngan became embroiled in a succession crisis. King Taejo, possibly motivated by fondness for his second wife, had selected his youngest son by that wife, Grand Prince Ŭian, as his heir apparent. Chŏngan, frustrated that he and the other sons of Taejo's first wife had been passed over, began moving to eliminate his half-brothers from the line of succession. After Taejo fell ill, Chŏngan launched the First Strife of the Princes, in which he had both children of Taejo's second wife, including the crown prince, murdered. He then declared his older brother and Taejo's second son, Grand Prince Yŏngan, crown prince. In the 9th month, Taejo abdicated the throne in favor of Yŏngan, who became King Jeongjong (r. 1398–1400). As Jeongjong did not have any sons, he intended to pass the throne onto Chŏngan after his death. However, in the 2nd month of 1400, their brother Grand Prince Hoean attempted to seize the throne in the Second Strife of the Princes. The coup was suppressed. Soon afterwards, Jeongjong abdicated the throne in favor of Yŏngan, who became King Taejong (r. 1400–1418).

Very little is known of Yi To's early life; few records were made of him, as it had seemed unlikely that he would ascend to the throne until just before he did. In 1413, Taejong told Yi To (who by then was called Ch'ungnyŏng): "you have nothing to do in particular, so you should just enjoy your life in peace". At this point, he was already considered to be bright and skilled at the arts, including calligraphy, the gayageum (traditional Korean string instrument), and painting. That year, he began to be tutored by scholar-official Yi Su.

Heir to the throne

By 1406, Taejong had decided that he wished to eventually abdicate the throne to a successor while he was still alive, to reduce the probability of a succession crisis upon his death. Taejong had twelve sons, the oldest of which was Grand Prince Yangnyŏng. Yangnyŏng was designated the successor.

A number of anecdotes indicate that Yangnyŏng was considered to have behavioral issues. Yangnyŏng disobeyed the king frequently, neglected studying, and womanized. Taejong strictly and sternly managed Yangnyŏng's education. Historian Kim Young Soo argued that this may have pushed Yangnyŏng away from studying. The king also disliked the companions of the grand prince; on several occasions they were banned from the palace for their behavior. By contrast, various anecdotes in the Veritable Records of Taejong indicate that Ch'ungnyŏng was seen as intelligent and studious by the king and various members of the court. The king frequently praised Ch'ungnyŏng and compared him favorably to Yangnyŏng, to the latter's chagrin. On several occasions, Ch'ungnyŏng chastised the misbehavior of Yangnyŏng, which only fueled the latter's resentment, although on several occasions Yangnyŏng acknowledged his brother's better judgement. The two developed a bitter rivalry.

In early 1417, it emerged that Yangnyŏng had had an affair with a woman named Ŏri (어리; 於里), a concubine of scholar-official Kwak Sŏn (곽선; 郭璇). The incident enraged and embarrassed Taejong. Yangnyŏng angrily accused Ch'ungnyŏng of having informed their father of the affair.

In early 1418, the younger brother of Ch'ungnyŏng, Grand Prince Sŏngnyŏng, was deathly ill. Ch'ungnyŏng reportedly stayed by his brother's bed day and night, reading medical texts and helping with the treatment. Sŏngnyŏng died on the 4th day, 2nd month of that year. Afterwards, Taejong went to Kaesong and nominally left Yangnyŏng in charge of the capital in his absence. He quietly ordered that Yangnyŏng be functionally isolated and monitored; he wished to see if Yangnyŏng would change his ways. In his father's absence, Yangnyŏng brought Ŏri back into the palace, where she gave birth to their child. When Taejong learned of this, he wept and confided to several ministers that he had little faith in Yangnyŏng's ability to govern. Historian Yoon Jeong argues that, around this time, Taejong worked on building consensus among his cabinet to have Yangnyŏng removed from his position. Their relationship reached its lowest point in the 5th month of that year, after Yangnyŏng sent a letter to his father in which he defended his actions and questioned his father's judgment.

On the 3rd day, 6th month of 1418, Taejong and his ministers held a meeting on whether to depose Yangnyŏng. The topic was contentious as it required overriding the stable practice of primogeniture. Despite some opposition from the queen and several in the court, it was decided that Yangnyŏng would be demoted and exiled to Gwangju. It was also decided that they would select the new successor based on their merits. Taejong described his second son, Grand Prince Hyoryŏng, as weak and overly agreeable. He then nominated Ch'ungnyŏng, whom he praised as studious and wise. The court reportedly enthusiastically agreed with Taejong's nomination. There is an anecdote that these decisions weighed heavily on Taejong, and that he wept after making them. Yangnyŏng took the news of his deposal calmly and quickly became detatched from politics. Kim argued that Yangnyŏng had likely anticipated this happening. He was eventually invited back to the capital by his brother and the two got along well.

Early reign

On 18 September 1418, Chungnyeong ascended the throne as King Sejong, following Taejong's abdication. However, Taejong retained military power and continued to make major political decisions as king emeritus (상왕; 上王) until his death. Sejong did not challenge Taejong's authority and deferred to his father during this period. Perpetually wary of royal authority falling into the thrall of the queen's clan, Taejong had Sejong's father-in-law, Shim On, executed on charges of treason. Other members of the queen's family were exiled or made commoners, which left Queen Soheon politically isolated and unable to protest.

Despite inheriting significantly strengthened royal authority, Sejong did not suppress the press and promoted meritocracy through gwageo, the national civil service exam.

Science, mathematics, and technology

Sejong oversaw one of the most productive eras in Korean science. Several historians have described his reign as a "golden age" for the field.

Astronomy, meteorology, calendars, and timekeeping

Part of the water clock Borugak Jagyeongnu. Built during Sejong's reign, when it rang the time would be relayed to the rest of the city.

Sejong oversaw significant research into astronomy. In 1432, a solar eclipse occurred two days later than predicted; this motivated Sejong to commission the research and development of astronomical instruments such as globes, planispheres, and sun dials. An armillary sphere was created in 1433. A water clock was designed by Chang Yŏngsil in 1434. In 1434 or 1438, the observatory Ganuidae was established in Gyeongbokgung by order of Sejong. In 1441, Prince Yi Hyang (the future King Munjong) led Korean scientists Yi Ch'ŏn and Chang Yŏngsil in inventing the ch'ŭgugi: a rain gauge, the likes of which would not be invented in Europe until Benedetto Castelli's invention in 1639. In 1442, ch'ŭgugi were distributed around Joseon. They fell out of use in the late 16th century, but were brought back in 1770 and saw continued use until the end of the Joseon period. The sup'yo (수표; 水標), a stream gauge, was invented in 1442.

Under Sejong, Korea began to develop its own indiginous calendar tradition for the first time. Prior to Sejong's reign, Korea was not able to accurately calculate dates or the positions of major heavenly bodies; it instead relied on calculations and calendars from China. These calculations were dependent on China's position on the Earth and were thus ill-suited for use in Korea. The use of Chinese calendars was in part political; it was seen as obligatory for Joseon to defer to the use of the calendar of its suzerain, Ming. In addition, Ming guarded the calculation methods for their calendar systems. In 1433, studies on calendar systems from China and elsewhere were launched. Sejong ordered that such studies be kept secret from Ming. In 1444, Sejong's court devised a new calendar: "Ch'ilchŏngsan". It used Seoul as its reference point. It allowed them to accurately predict lunar and solar eclipses in 1447. It was revised beginning in 1448, due to inconsistencies with the Chinese calendar. Historian Park Kwon Soo argued the inconsistencies were not mistakes, and were instead merely due to the differing locations of Beijing and Seoul. Nevertheless, Sinocentric Korean scholars expressed concerns about departing from Chinese calculations.

Medicine

Sejong also oversaw significant advances in Korean medicine. Historian of Korean medicine Kim Dujong argued that Sejong created "the foundation of medicine in Joseon". Sejong attempted to systematize both medical research and practice, with the latter grounded in the former.

Cover of a volume of Ŭibangyuch'wi

In 1433, the 56-volume medical text Hyangyakchipsŏngbang was compiled. It became a major medical text; it was intended to serve as a comprehensive medical guide and was multiple times larger than its predecessor Hyangyak chesaeng chipsŏngbang. It described hundreds of symptoms and over 10,000 treatments. The work was based on research on traditional medicine throughout Korea, and included comparisons to Chinese medicine. It became a prized source of information in Ming as well. In 1445 or 1447, the 365-volume medical text Ŭibangyuch'wi was completed. Medical historian Kim Seongsu argues the text's scale dwarfs that of contemporary Chinese medical texts, and that it was possibly among the largest research projects in East Asia at the time. Kim also argued that this text may have also been applied to Sejong's treatment, as Sejong ordered that it be consulted months before he died.

In 1443, he ordered that the palace pharmacy Naeyakbang (내약방; 內藥房) be reorganized into the royal medical agency Naeŭiwŏn. Sejong also made efforts to lower the cost of medicine. He implemented price controls, established a fund that subsidized more expensive medicines, and attempted to substitute expensive foreign ingredients for domestic. In 1423 and 1430, he had Korean medical researchers visit China and work with Chinese researchers to determine what native Korean ingredients could serve as adequate substitutes for Chinese ingredients. This research resulted in the creation of the 1431 medical text Hyangyak ch'aech'wi wŏllyŏng (향약채취월령; 鄕藥採取月令).

Sejong also took personal interest in medical education. In 1427, he ordered that medical students be given support so that they can focus on their studies. In 1430, he ordered that the ŭigwa (medical examination) be reformed; major texts on traditional Chinese medicine and even veterinarian studies were added to the curriculum.

Movable type

Kabin types set on a plate

Sejong's reign was a high point in innovations in Korean movable type technology. In 1420, Sejong ordered the casting of new kyŏngja types (경자자; 庚子字). The previously used kyemi types (계미자; 癸未字) required the use of adhesive beeswax to secure type to plate; this process was laborious and slow. The kyŏngja types instead relied on faster mechanical methods of typesetting, and allowed multiple times more pages to be printed per day. In 1434, Sejong's court cast a set of more than 200,000 kabin types (갑인자; 甲寅字) that were made of copper. The kabin types were as twice as efficient to use as kyŏngja types. Kabin type were manufactured five, six, or seven additional times in the future. After 1437, lead types began to be used. The use of such types was also regulated. Punishments were established for mistakes and poor worksmanship.

Agriculture

Sejong oversaw a notable increase in agricultural productivity. In 1429, the agricultural treatise Nongsa chiksŏl was completed under order of Sejong. The work was meant to be more directly suited to Korean agriculture than Chinese works. The text contains anecdotes from experienced farmers around Korea and remained a foundational work in Korean agriculture studies until the 17th century. It contributed to a multiplication of agricultural output by the end of the reign of King Seongjong (r. 1469–1494). Sejong took personal charge of an experiment on palace land on crop management in bad weather. Advancements in irrigation and the sericulture were also made.

Mathematics

Sejong was a significant advocate for the study and use of mathematics in Joseon. At the time, mathematics was seen as a field for lower-level bureaucrats and not Confucian scholars, especially not rulers. Sejong went against this social norm by studying mathematics himself. Sejong said of mathematics:

It is said that mathematics is nothing more than a mechanical skill, but it is indispensable to the administration of the state. But for the participation of Yi Sunji, Kim Tam and others in the recent cadastral survey, it is questionable the land could have been measured properly. By all means devise measures to ensure the maximum development of mathematics throughout the land.

— Veritable Records of Sejong, 17th day, 11th month of 1443

In 1431, Sejong sent promising mathematicians to China for study. In 1433, a 100-volume treatise on mathematics was printed, and in 1438 five mathematics texts were added to curriculums of technical colleges; afterwards mathematics became around half their curriculum. Unlike under some other monarchs when mathematics was neglected, Sejong encouraged the use of mathematics in government; people skilled in math were employed to administer taxes, take the census, and manage currency and accounting.

Cartography

Sejong's administration also made advances in cartography. In 1424, Sejong ordered that a national geography be compiled. In 1432 or 1434, a collection of maps of Korea called "Sinch'an p'alto chiriji" (신찬팔도지리지; 新撰八道地理志) were prepared based on records and surveying efforts. This work was eventually incorporated into a 1454 larger collection of maps called "Sejong sillok chiriji". These maps served as foundation and reference for later maps and works.

Weaponry

Sejong commissioned the 1448 text Ch'ongt'ong tŭngnok (총통등록; 銃筒騰錄), which covered the manufacture and deployment of firearms. The fire arrow rocket launcher sin'gijŏn was developed during Sejong's reign; it was first attested to in 1448.

Arts and culture

Music

The lyrics of the song Yŏmillak, which was composed by Sejong himself

Sejong and his administration had a major influence in Korean court music. Sejong observed the aak genre music of the Korean court and felt that it had degenerated from ancient Chinese ideals. He and several scholars consulted Chinese text and attempted to rejuvenate Korean practice. From 1420 to 1425, Sejong had new court music produced. He himself composed the pieces Pot'aep'yŏng (보태평; 保太平), Chŏngdaeŏp (정대업; 定大業), and Yŏmillak. In 1430, after consulting ancient Chinese musicology texts, Sejong ordered that Pak Yŏn, Chŏng Inji, and others develop new music for Confucian rites. These efforts resulted in the recreations of several ancient Chinese instruments and a musical treatise that would be appended to the Veritable Records of Sejong. Reforms on court music continued, with new songs performed in 1433. Under Sejong's reign, the first mensural notation scheme in Asia was developed. Research conducted on Chinese musicology in Sejong's reign was eventually compiled into the 1493 text Akhak kwebŏm. This work has been evaluated as an extremely valuable source of information on traditional Sino-Korean music.

Sejong participated in composing the music for the 1449 Buddhist text Sari yŏngŭnggi (사리영응기; 舍利靈應記).

In 1418, during Sejong's reign, scholars developed the Pyeongyeong (편경; 編磬), a lithophone modeled on the Chinese bianqing. The Pyeongyeong is a percussion instrument consisting of two rows of eight pumice slabs hung on a decorative wooden frame with a 16-tone range and struck with an ox horn mallet. It was manufactured using pumice mined from the Gyeonggi Province and was primarily used for ceremonies.

Sejong's contribution to the arts continued long after his death; he had always wanted to use Korean music rather than Chinese music for ancestral rituals, but conservative court officials stopped his efforts. However, when Sejong's son, King Sejo, rose to the throne, he modified the ritual music composed by his father and created the 'Jongmyo court music', which was used for royal ancestral rituals and is now inscribed as an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Ceremonial rites

In the practice of ceremonial rites, Sejong attempted to preserve Korean tradition while also introducing ancient Chinese tradition. In 1444, Sejong ordered that research on the Five Rites be completed. Historian Martina Deuchler argued that it is clear Sejong supervised the compilation and give his own input. Once completed in 1451, a copy of the work was appended to the Veritable Records of Sejong.

Art and calligraphy

Significant quantities of art were sponsored and produced during this period. Major artists of this period include literati painter Kang Hŭian, Ch'oe Kyŏng, Yi Sangjwa, and An Kyŏn. In 1446, An produced the landmark painting Mongyudowŏndo, which is said to be based on a dream of Sejong's third son Grand Prince Anp'yŏng. Calligraphy also florished; that grand prince was himself a renowned calligrapher.

Literature

In 1442, he ordered governors in the southern provinces to gather information on his father's past exploits in suppressing Japanese pirates; these stories were developed into the work Yongbiŏch'ŏn'ga. That work then became the first major piece of literature in Hangul, after its Korean poems were completed around 1447.

Domestic policy

Public welfare

In 1426, Sejong enacted a law that granted government serfs (노비; 奴婢; nobi) women 100 days of maternity leave after childbirth, which, in 1430, was lengthened by one month before childbirth. In 1434, he also granted the husbands 30 days of paternity leave.

In order to provide equality and fairness in taxation for the common people, Sejong issued a royal decree to administer a nationwide public opinion poll regarding a new tax system called Gongbeop in 1430. Over the course of five months, the poll surveyed 172,806 people, of which approximately 57% responded with approval for the proposed reform.

Joseon's economy depended on the agricultural output of the farmers, so Sejong allowed them to pay more or less tax according to the fluctuations of economic prosperity and hard times. Because of this, farmers could worry less about tax quotas and instead work at maintaining and selling their crops.

It is said that once, when the palace had a significant surplus of food, the king distributed it to poor peasants who needed it. It is also said that Sejong the Great created relief programs for those affected by floods, giving them food and shelter. Otherwise the state maintained a permanent grain dole, that existed since the days of Unified Silla.

Religion

During the Goryeo period, monks wielded strong political and economic influence. However, in Joseon, Buddhism was considered a false philosophy and the monks were viewed as corrupted by power and money.

Likewise, Sejong continued Joseon's policies of "worshiping Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism" (숭유억불; 崇儒抑佛). He banned monks from entering Hanseong and reduced the seven schools of Buddhism down to two, Seon and Gyo, drastically decreasing the power and wealth of the religious leaders. One of the key factors in this suppression was Sejong's reform of the land system. This policy resulted in temple lands being seized and redistributed for development and monks losing large amounts of economic influence. Furthermore, he performed government ceremonies according to Confucianism and encouraged people to behave according to the teachings of Confucius.

At the same time, Sejong sought to alleviate religious tensions between Confucianism and Buddhism. The Seokbosangjeol (석보상절; 釋譜詳節), a 24-volume Korean-language biography of Buddha translated from Chinese Buddhist texts, was commissioned and published in Sejong's reign by Grand Prince Suyang, in mourning for Queen Soheon, a devout Buddhist. Sejong advocated the project—despite fierce opposition from his courtiers—and condemned the hypocrisy of those who privately worship the Buddha yet publicly rebuke others for doing so.

上謂承政院曰 孟子言 '墨子以薄爲道, 而葬其親厚'。大抵臣子之道, 宜以直事上, 不可容其詐。 然世人在家, 奉佛事神, 靡所不至, 及對人, 反以神佛爲非, 予甚惡之。

The King spoke to the Sŭngjŏngwŏn,

Mencius once said, 'Mozi regards austerity as a virtue and yet made a lavish burial for his parents.' Generally speaking, a subject's duty is to serve his superior with honesty and not to tolerate deceit. However, people all around the world worship the Buddha, serve spirits at their houses, and yet reproach others for worshiping the very ghosts and Buddha they themselves revere; I find this highly reprehensible.

— Year 28, Month 3, Day 26, Entry 6, The Veritable Records of King Sejong, volume 111

In 1427, Sejong issued a decree against the Huihui (Korean Muslim) community that had enjoyed special status and stipends since the Yuan dynasty's rule over Goryeo. The Huihui were forced to abandon their headgear, close down their ceremonial hall – a mosque in Gaegyeong, present-day Kaesong – and worship like everyone else. No further records of Muslims exist during the Joseon era.

Economy

In the early years of the Joseon dynasty, the economy operated on a barter system, with cloth, grain, and cotton being the most common forms of currency. In 1423, under King Sejong's administration, the government attempted to introduce a national currency modeled after the Tang dynasty's kaiyuan tongbao (開元通寶). The resulting Joseon tongbo (조선통보; 朝鮮通寶) was a bronze coin, backed by a silver standard, with 150 coins being equal to 600 grams of silver. However, production ceased in 1425 due to high manufacturing costs, as the exchange rate dropped below the coin's intrinsic value.

In 1445, Sejong consolidated the various sujoji records, previously managed by various government offices, and placed them under the administration of the Ministry of Taxation (Hojo) to improve transparency in Joseon's fiscal policies.

Foreign policy

Sejong continued the Tang and Goryeo tradition of xianghua (向化; 향화; hyanghwa; "submitting-foreigner status"). This was a semi-hereditary set of designations for foreigners that allowed them to reside in Korea, with certain tax and civil exemptions for at least one generation; their descendents were eventually naturalized. The status's intent was to encourage peaceful, eventual naturalization and assimilation. For settlers around the capital, Sejong had the designation limited to one generation after the original immigrants. Joseon, under Sejong, also had separate pathways for naturalization of foreigners, including the granting of clan seats.

Sejong also continued the practice of allowing systematized forms of tribute from foreigners, namely Jurchens and Japanese people. Depending on group and status, a limited number of tributes were allowed to be given to the monarchy in exchange for political favor.

Japan–Korea relations

See also: History of Japan–Korea relations

Although Japanese pirates (called wokou) from Tsushima Island raided Joseon's shores with declining frequency by the late Goryeo period, they still posed a threat by Sejong's reign. The pirates would steal materials, boats, and Korean people for enslavement. In 1418, a famine and the death of Tsushima leader Sō Sadashige led to increased raids on Joseon. In retaliation for this, in 1419, Sejong, under his father's guidance, launched the punitive Ōei Invasion against Tsushima. Joseon forces consisted of 227 ships and some 16,000 or 17,000 soldiers under command of Yi Chongmu. After 15 days of fighting, the lord of Tsushima surrendered. During this conflict, Japanese people that fled Tsushima were allowed to settle in Joseon as hyanghwa.

Ten days before Joseon's punitive attack on Tsushima, Taejong claimed that Tsushima once belonged to Korea. Seven months afterwards, in 1420, the Korean court accepted a request of Tsushima lord Sō Sadamori (or someone claiming to represent Sadamori) that Tsushima be absorbed into Joseon. The Joseon court then considered Tsushima to be under the administrative boundaries of Gyeongsang Province. This absorption was later rejected by Sadamori.

Scholars have debated how Joseon under Sejong treated Japan. Several have argued that Joseon treated parts of Japan as if they were subordinate to Joseon. Envoys from even the shogun were symbolically ceremonially treated as if the shogun was a subject of Joseon. Japanese leaders were made to request copper seals (도서; 圖書; tosŏ) in order to access Joseon. Japanese leaders that showed greater aptitude in preventing piracy were granted greater rank and trade with Joseon. Historian Kenneth R. Robinson argued that Joseon had a unique and flexible relationship with the fractured "Japan" (Japan was not a strongly unified political entity by this time) that changed over time. He argued Joseon borrowed elements of China's tributary system for its own purposes.

Under Sejong, Joseon successfully incentivized Japanese leaders to discourage piracy in exchange for valuable trade access. Through this strategy, Joseon was able to change its gradually change its focus from security to trade management. Japanese traders were restricted to all but three ports of Joseon; the third port was opened under Sejong in 1426. Japanese traders were also made to follow specific routes on specific days to reach the capital. In 1423, government warehouses were created for Japanese traders in the ports. In 1438, Joseon granted Tsushima lord Sō Sadamori a monopoly on issuing documents of passage for Japanese people to visit Joseon. This also benefitted Joseon in that it allowed them to offshore this administrative process and the possible associated backlash from rebuffed Japanese traders. In 1439, some limited exceptions to the monopoly were granted to other Japanese lords. In the 1443 Treaty of Kyehae, Joseon limited the number of ships at these ports from Japan to 50 per year. Due to the peaceful contact and trade, historian James B. Lewis described the 15th century encompassing Sejong's reign, especially around the 1443 treaty, as "the peak of peaceful Japanese contact with Korea prior to the end of the twentieth century".

Japanese leaders frequently requested Buddhist gifts from Joseon. For example, the Ōuchi clan persistently requested the wood printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana, to the chagrin of Sejong's Confucianist court. The blocks were valuable and expensive to produce copies of. Eventually, the Ōuchi clan was given printed copies of the Tripitaka instead, which were still expensive to produce.

Northern frontier and Jurchen relations

Sejong continued the work of his predecessors in pacifying and conquering the northern frontier. It was under Sejong that Korea's northern borders were expanded to reach its current extent. The northern frontier was of strategic importance, as it served as the border between Korea and China, and because the local Jurchens would frequently raid Korean settlements. In 1432, the Hulun Udeha tribe (Eastern Jurchens) attacked Joseon.

Sejong launched military campaigns against the Jurchens and established garrison forces to pacify local populations. He sent one such campaign in 1433, with Ch'oe Yundŏk and Yi Ch'ŏn in command, and another in 1437 under Kim Chongsŏ. The latter campaign resulted in the creation of six garrisons in the region and the current northern borders of Korea.

Sejong also opened trade with Jurchens in order to discourage raids. This was possibly, in part, motivated by their previous successes in using trade to discourage Japanese piracy. From 1437 to 1443, the Hulun Udeha tribe that had previously attacked Joseon sent at least 127 trade missions to the Joseon court. Over time, restrictions and limits were applied on Jurchen trade missions to Joseon. Such trade was intended to provide Jurchens economic alternatives to raiding. Jurchens that aided Joseon were rewarded with rank and access to trade. His administration also moved Korean settlers to conquered regions and encouraged intermarriage between Jurchens and Koreans to deter conflict. During Sejong's reign, the entire population of Hamgyong Province north of Tanchon was described as the descendents of Jurchen hyanghwa. They eventually became full citizens of Joseon. Jurchens were also granted nominal appointments to the Korean military. These appointments did not require military service; they were instead meant to assimilate by integratin Jurchens into the Joseon bureaucracy.

Historians have evaluated Sejong's efforts in settling and pacifying the region as having mixed success. Korean settlers struggled to make a living in the frontier and often abandoned the land. The northern regions would continue to pose threats to Joseon's security after Sejong's reign.

China–Korea relations

See also: History of Sino-Korean relations and Tributary system of China

Historian Shih-Shan Henry Tsai argued that the reign of Sejong saw an improvement in Sino-Korean relations and that "Sino-Korean borders became marketplaces instead of war zones". Sejong and Emperor Yongle often exchanged books and letters on various topics, including religion, philosophy, history, science, and technology. In 1423 alone, Sejong sent 10,000 tribute horses to Yongle. In return, Sejong received a huge quantity of silver, brocade, and silk. Sejong had the gate Yŏngŭnmun erected in Seoul in 1429 as a symbolic place of greeting for arriving Chinese envoys.

Sejong sought to balance the Joseon policy of sadae (Confucian deference to China) with the need for flexible governance and Korean autonomy. For example, various scholars have argued that the semi-tributary relationships Sejong maintained with Japanese and Jurchen groups were technically forbidden by the Chinese tributary system. Under that system, tributaries to China could only interact with each other as equals, but Sejong chose to forego strict adherence to this for Joseon's benefit. Also, in at least one occasion early in his reign, Sejong expressed reluctance to perform ritual sacrifices to pray for rain; such rituals were seen as only appropriate for the Chinese emperor. Despite this, he eventually began performing the rituals. By the end of his reign, he stopped this practice. Sejong had a scholar write an essay that said that Korean kings also had the Mandate of Heaven, which was normally exclusively claimed by China. In 1449, when Ming requested that Joseon send 100,000 Korean troops to the Liaodong area of Manchuria, Joseon declined. The anti-Buddhist policies under Sejong put Joseon at odds with Ming; in dealings with China, the Joseon court attempted to allay concerns that it was suppressing Buddhism. Around that time, Buddhism enjoyed significant support among the Ming court and gentry. Korean Buddhist monks escaped to Ming: 30 during the reign of Taejong and 9 during the reign of Sejong. Sejong asked the Ming Yongle Emperor, a devout Buddhist, if those monks could be repatriated. Fearing what would happen to the monks, the Yongle Emperor declined.

Hangul

See also: Hunminjeongeum, Hangul, and Origin of Hangul

Hunminjeongeum

King Sejong profoundly affected Korea's history with the creation and introduction of hangul, the native phonetic writing system for the Korean language. Although it is widely assumed that he ordered the Hall of Worthies to invent the script, contemporaneous records such as the Veritable Records of King Sejong and Chŏng Inji's preface to the Hunminjeongeum Haerye emphasize that Sejong invented it himself.

Before the creation of the new alphabet, the people of Joseon primarily used Classical Chinese to write, alongside a few writing systems like idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil – which used Chinese characters to approximate sounds of the Korean language – that had been in use since hundreds of years before hangul. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of Chinese characters required, lower-class people of Joseon lacked the privilege of education and were illiterate. To promote literacy, King Sejong created hangul (which initially had 28 letters, four of which, ㆆ, ㆁ, ㅿ, and ·, are no longer in use).

Hangul was completed in 1443 and published in 1446 along with a 33-page manual titled Hunminjeongeum, explaining what the letters are as well as the philosophical theories and motives behind them.

King Sejong faced backlash from the noble class as many disapproved of the idea of a common writing system, with some openly opposing its creation. Many within the nobility believed that giving the peasants the ability to read and write would allow them to find and abuse loopholes within the law. Others felt that hangul would threaten their families' positions in court by creating a larger pool of civil servants. The Joseon elite continued to use the Chinese hanja long after Sejong's death. Hangul was often treated with contempt by those in power and received criticism in the form of nicknames, including eonmun ("vulgar script"), amkeul ("women's script"), and ahaekkeul ("children's script"). It was commonly used for areas like casual writing, prose and bookkeeping, especially by the urban middle class like administrators and bureaucrats. It notably gained popularity among women and fiction writers, with former usually often not having been able to get access to hanja education.

In 1504, the study and publication of hangul was banned by Yeonsangun. Its spread and preservation can be largely attributed to three main factors: books published for women, its use by Buddhist monks, and the introduction of Christianity in Korea in 1602. Hangul was brought into the mainstream culture in the 16th century due to a renaissance in literature and poetry. It continued to gain popularity well into the 17th century, and gained wider use after a period of nationalism in the 19th century. In 1849, it was adopted as Korea's national writing system, and saw its first use in official government documents. After the Treaty of 1910, hangul was outlawed again until the liberation of Korea in 1945.

Later life and death

Sejong reported to having recurring and worsening health issues for much of his life; a number of these complaints were recorded in the Veritable Records. One of the earliest records of his complaints was made when he was 22 years old; he then claimed to have knee and back pain. In his 30s, he complained of back pain and began reporting problems with his vision, excess thirst, and excess urination. In his 40s, he complained of his vision problems with greater frequency. He had a reputation for enjoying the consumption of meat and having a sedentary lifestyle. Beginning in 1445, he was practicing Buddhist vegetarianism.

Scholars have attempted to infer what diseases he had based on historical evidence. The predominant theory is that Sejong had either type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Medical researcher JiHwan Lee disputes that diagnosis and argues that Sejong's symptoms more closely resemble those of ankylosing spondylitis (a type of arthritis). Lee argues that either type of diabetes would have been lethal to him sooner, and that Sejong did not have a clear family history of diabetes.

Beginning in 1437, Sejong began asking his ministers if lesser governmental affairs could be delegated to the crown prince, as he was feeling unwell. Historian Martina Deuchler argued Sejong asked this because he intended to ease the crown prince into politics to make the succession smoother. His ministers dismissed his health concerns then and multiple times over for years onwards, including in 1438, 1439, and 1442. Finally, apparently frustrated with the lack of progress, Sejong issued an edict in 1443 in which he declared the crown prince would handle minor state affairs for the last half of each month, and that all ministers must proclaim their loyalty to him. This sparked furious protest from across the government. Some ministers balked at the idea of being presided over by the crown prince, and others expressed concerns that the division of royal authority could destabilize the state. After years of debate and compromise, in 1445, the crown prince began to handle the routine affairs of government.

Yeongneung: the tomb of Sejong

In his last years, Sejong spent much of his time in his study, writing poetry. In the last months of his life, his pains grew more serious. On the 22nd day, 1st month of 1450, he moved into the residence of Grand Prince Hyoryŏng to receive treatment for his illnesses. He died on the 17th day, 2nd month of 1450 at the age of 53, in the residence of Grand Prince Yŏngŭng in Gyeongbokgung's East Palace. He was the first Joseon king to die while in office. He is buried in the tomb Yeongneung. That tomb was originally located in what is now Seocho District in Seoul, but in 1469 it was moved to what is now Yeoju after it was determined that the geomantic properties of the new site were superior. He is buried alongside Queen Sohŏn.

Reception and legacy

King Sejong the Great, as depicted on the Bank of Korea's 10,000 won banknote (Series VI).

Sejong the Great is considered one of the most influential monarchs in Korean history, with the creation of Hangul considered his greatest legacy. Sejong is widely renowned in modern-day South Korea. In a 2024 survey by Gallup Korea, Sejong was nominated as the second most respected figure by South Koreans, only to be surpassed by Yi Sun-sin. The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture evaluates the reign of Sejong "the most shining period of the history of our [the Korean] people." Sejong's creation of the Korean alphabet is celebrated every 9 October as Hangul Day, a national holiday.

Multiple places in South Korea, including Sejong Street (Sejongno; 세종로, 世宗路), Sejong–Pocheon Expressway, and Sejong City, South Korea's de facto administrative capital, are named after him. Various institutes such as King Sejong Station, the King Sejong Institute, the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts, Sejong Science High School, and Sejong University also bear his name. A 9.5-meter-high (31 ft) bronze statue of King Sejong, unveiled in 2009 in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet, now sits on a concrete pedestal on the boulevard of Gwanghwamun Square and directly in front of the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul. The pedestal contains one of the several entrances to the 3,200 m² underground museum exhibit entitled "The Story of King Sejong". In 2007, the South Korean Chief of Naval Operations officially announced the naming of its Sejong the Great-class destroyers, further explaining that Sejong's name was chosen as he was the most beloved figure among South Koreans. A portrait of Sejong is featured on the 10,000-won banknote of the South Korean won, along with various scientific tools invented under his reign. Sejong was first portrayed in the 1000-hwan bill as part of the 15 August 1960 currency reform, replacing the portrait of former president Syngman Rhee. Sejong was also featured on the 500-hwan bill the following year. Both bills were decommissioned in 1962. Sejong's portrait returned with the introduction of the 10,000-won bill, when his portrait and Geunjeongjeon replaced Seokguram and Bulguksa as features of the bill, in 1973.

In North Korea, Sejong is not as widely commemorated as in the South. Volume 16 of the Great Korean Encyclopedia asserts that feudalist pressure and extortion was strengthened during Sejong's reign and that all of Sejong's policies were directed for the benefit of the feudalist ruling class. In contrast, on 15 December 2001, North Korean news outlet Tongil Sinbo stated in a column that Sejong the Great greatly contributed to Korean science during his 30-year reign. Hangul Day is also celebrated in North Korea, albeit on a different date than in South Korea.

Family

Ancestry

Ancestors of Sejong the Great

8. Yi Ja-chun, King Hwanjo of Joseon (조선 환조 이자춘) 4. King Taejo of Joseon (조선 태조) 9. Queen Uihye of the Yeongheung Choe clan (의혜왕후 최씨) 2. King Taejong of Joseon (조선 태종) 10. Han Gyeong, Internal Prince Ancheon (안천부원군 한경) 5. Queen Sinui of the Cheongju Han clan (신의왕후 한씨) 11. Lady Shin of the Saknyeong Shin clan, Grand Princess Consort of Samhan State (삼한국대부인 삭녕 신씨) 1. Sejong of Joseon 12. Min Byeon (민변) 6. Min Je, Internal Prince Yeoheung and Duke Mundo (여흥부원군 문도공 민제) 3. Queen Wongyeong of the Yeoheung Min clan (원경왕후 민씨) 14. Song Seon (송선) 7. Lady Song of the Yeosan Song clan, Grand Princess Consort of Samhan State (삼한국대부인 여산 송씨)

Consorts and issue

Officially, Sejong had 18 sons and 4 daughters. He also had a 19th son, Prince Tang (1442–?), that died in childhood and was never included in the family genealogy book.

• Queen Sohŏn of the Cheongsong Sim clan (1395–1446)
  • Princess Chŏngso (1412–1424)
  • King Munjong (1414–1452), first son
  • Princess Chŏngŭi (1414 or 1415 – 1477)
  • King Sejo (1417–1468), second son
  • Grand Prince Anp'yong (1418–1453), third son
  • Grand Prince Imyŏng (1420–1469), fourth son
  • Grand Prince Kwangp'yŏng (1425–1444), fifth son
  • Grand Prince Kŭmsŏng (1426–1456), seventh son
  • Grand Prince P'yŏngwŏn (1427–1445), ninth son
  • Grand Prince Yŏngŭng (1434–1467), fifteenth son
• Royal Noble Consort Sin of the Cheongpung Kim clan (1406–1464)
  • Two daughters, both died young
  • Prince Kyeyang (1427–1464), eighth son
  • Prince Ŭich'ang (1428–1460), tenth son
  • Prince Milsŏng (1430–1479), twelfth son
  • Prince Ikhyŏn (1431–1463), fourteenth son
  • Prince Yŏnghae (1435–1477), seventeenth son
  • Prince Tamyang (1439–1450), eighteenth son
• Royal Noble Consort Hye of the Cheongju Yang clan (?–1455)
  • Prince Hannam (1429–1459), eleventh son
  • Prince Such'un (1431–1455), thirteenth son
  • Prince Yŏngp'ung (1431–1463), sixteenth son
• Royal Noble Consort Yŏng of the Jinju Kang clan (?–1483)
  • Prince Hwaŭi (1425–?), sixth son
• Royal Consort Pak of the Miryang Park clan
• Royal Consort Ch'oe of the Jeonju Choe clan
• Royal Consort Cho (숙의 조씨; 淑儀曺氏)
• Consort Hong (?–1452)
• Consort Yi
  • Princess Chŏngan (?–1461)
• Lady Song (1396–1463)
  • Princess Chŏnghyŏn (1425–1480)
• Lady Ch'a (?–1444)
  • Daughter (1430–1431)

The Placenta Chambers of King Sejong's Sons in Seongju County is a Historic Site of South Korea. It was built from 1438 to 1442. The plot contains nineteen placenta chambers (chambers that hold the placenta of newborn children). Eighteen of the chambers belong to Sejong's sons and a nineteenth belongs to Sejong's grandson, King Danjong.

In popular culture

Television series and films

Television series

Year	Portrayed by	Title	Refs
1973	Nam Il-woo	King Sejong the Great
1980	Yoo Soon-cheol	Pacheonmu
1983	Han In-soo	500 Years of Joseon Dynasty: Tree with Deep Roots
1990	Nam Nam Woo	Pacheonmu
1994	Kim Won-bae	Han Myŏnghoe
1998–2000	Ahn Jae-mo	Tears of the Dragon
1998–2000	Song Jae-ho	The King and the Queen
2007	Kim Jun-sik	Sayukshin
2008	Lee Hyun-woo	The Great King, Sejong
	Kim Sang-kyung
2011	Kang San	Deep Rooted Tree
	Song Joong-ki
	Han Suk-kyu
	Jeon Moo-song	Insu, the Queen Mother
2015	Yoon Doo-joon	Splash Splash Love
2016	Nam Da-reum	Six Flying Dragons
	Kim Sang-kyung	Jang Yeong-sil
2021	Jang Dong-yoon	Joseon Exorcist
2022	Kim Min-gi	The King of Tears, Lee Bang-won
2025	Lee Jun Young	The Queen Who Crowns

Films

Year	Portrayed by	Title
1962	Kim Unh-hae	Around the World
1964	Choi Nam-hyeon	King Sejong the Great
1978	Shin Seong-il	King Sejong the Great
2008	Ahn Sung-ki	The Divine Weapon
2012	Ju Ji-hoon	I Am the King
2019	Song Kang-ho	The King's Letters
	Han Suk-kyu	Forbidden Dream

Video games

• Sejong is the leader of the Korean civilization in Sid Meier's Civilization VI's Leader Pass DLC, Sid Meier's Civilization V, and Civilization Revolution 2.
• Sejong is the starting ruler of Korea in Europa Universalis IV.

See also

• Sejong the Great-class destroyer
• UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize

References

Sources

In English

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• Kim, Seongsu (June 2019). "Health Policies under Sejong: The King who Searched for the Way of Medicine". The Review of Korean Studies. 22 (1): 135–171. doi:10.25024/review.2019.22.1.005. ISSN 1229-0076 – via AccessON.
• Kim, Yung Sik (1998). "Problems and Possibilities in the Study of the History of Korean Science". Osiris. 13: 48–79. ISSN 0369-7827 – via JSTOR.
• Kim-Renaud, Young-Key (2000). "Sejong's Theory of Literacy and Writing". Studies in the Linguistic Sciences. 30 (1): 13–45. ISSN 0049-2388 – via University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign University Library.
• Kwŏn, Yŏnung (1982). "The Royal Lecture and Confucian Politics in Early Yi Korea". Korean Studies. 6: 41–62. ISSN 0145-840X – via JSTOR.
• Ledyard, Gari Keith (1990). The Cultural Work of Sejong the Great (PDF) (Report) (published November 2002). pp. 7–18. Retrieved 26 July 2025 – via Korea Society.
• Lee, JiHwan (2021). "Did Sejong the Great have ankylosing spondylitis? The oldest documented case of ankylosing spondylitis". International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases. 24 (2): 203–206. doi:10.1111/1756-185X.14025. ISSN 1756-185X.
• Lee, Ki-Moon (September 2009). "Reflections on the Invention of the Hunmin jeongeum". Scripta. 1. The Hunmin jeongeum Society: 1–34. ISSN 2092-7215.
• Lovins, Christopher (2019). "Monarchs, Monks, and Scholars: Religion and State Power in Early Modern England and Korea". Journal of Asian History. 53 (2): 267–285. doi:10.13173/jasiahist.53.2.0267. ISSN 0021-910X – via JSTOR.
• Paek, Doohyeon (September 2011). "Hunmin jeongeum: Dissemination Policy and Education". Scripta. 2. The Hunmin jeongeum Society: 1–23. ISSN 2092-7215.
• Park, Hyun-mo (1 September 2005). "King Sejong's Deliberative Politics: With Reference to the Process of Tax Reform". The Review of Korean Studies. 8 (3): 57–90. ISSN 2733-9351 – via AccessON.
• Pu, Namchul (1 September 2005). "Buddhism and Confucianism in King Sejong's State Administration: Tension and Unity between Religion and Politics". The Review of Korean Studies. 8 (3): 25–46. ISSN 2733-9351 – via AccessON.
• Robinson, Kenneth R. (1992). "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392–1450". Korean Studies. 16: 94–115. ISSN 0145-840X – via JSTOR.
• Robinson, Kenneth R. (1996). "The Tsushima Governor and Regulation of Japanese Access to Chosŏn in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries". Korean Studies. 20: 23–50. ISSN 0145-840X – via JSTOR.
• Robinson, Kenneth R. (2013). "Organizing Japanese and Jurchens in Tribute Systems in Early Chosŏn Korea". Journal of East Asian Studies. 13 (2): 337–360. ISSN 1598-2408 – via JSTOR.
• Provine, Robert C. (1974). "The Treatise on Ceremonial Music (1430) in the Annals of the Korean King Sejong". Ethnomusicology. 18 (1): 1–29. doi:10.2307/850057. ISSN 0014-1836 – via JSTOR.
• Volpe, Giovanni (2023). "Reading at the Joseon Court: The Practice and Representation of Reading in the Sejong sillok (1418–1450)". Seoul Journal of Korean Studies. 36 (1): 251–275. ISSN 2331-4826 – via Project Muse.
• Volpe, Giovanni (1 May 2025). "The Power of Sound: Rethinking the Invention of the Korean Vernacular Script". Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. 25 (1): 51–74. doi:10.1215/15982661-11631558. ISSN 1598-2661 – via Duke University Press.
• Yoo, Mi-rim (1 September 2006). "King Sejong's Leadership and the Politics of Inventing the Korean Alphabet". The Review of Korean Studies. 9 (3): 7–38. ISSN 2733-9351 – via AccessON.

In Korean

Books

• 세종대왕의 왕자들 [King Sejong's Sons] (in Korean). King Sejong the Great Heritage Management Office. 8 October 2020. ISBN 978-89-299-1952-8.
• 이강근 (August 2007). 창건이후의 변천과정 고찰. 경복궁 변천사 (上) [History of Gyeongbokgung's Changes (Vol. 1)] (in Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration.
• 홍이섭 (15 May 2004) [1971-11-30]. 세종대왕 [Sejong the Great] (in Korean) (8th ed.). Seoul: King Sejong the Great Memorial Society. ISBN 89-8275-660-4.
• Yi Han (2007). 나는 조선이다 [I Am Joseon] (in Korean). Seoul: Cheong-A Publishing Company. ISBN 978-89-368-2112-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Academic articles

• 황경수 (2005). "훈민정음의 기원설" [A Study on the Origin of Hunminjeongum]. 새국어교육 (70). 한국국어교육학회: 221–238 – via Korea Open Access Journals.
• An, Chun (March 2007). 조선황실 세종임금님 어진 연구: 사회과교육 자료로서의 1만원권 화폐도안 연구: 사회과교육 자료로서의 1만원권 화폐도안 연구 [A study on the royal portrait of King Sejongin the Chosun Imperial Family]. 사회과교육 (in Korean). 46 (1): 59–81. ISSN 1225-0643 – via DBpia.
• Cho Nam-uk (2011). 세종대왕의 유불화해의식에 관한 연구 [A Study on King Sejong's Amicable Consciousness of Confucianism and Buddhism]. 윤리연구 (in Korean). 1 (80): 1–30. doi:10.15801/je.1.80.201103.1 – via KCI.
• Kim, Young Soo (December 2014). 조선왕조의 권력 이양과 승계: 양녕대군의 폐세자와 충녕대군에의 전위를 중심으로 [The Transfer of Power and Succession in Joseon: Focusing on the Dethronement of Crown Prince Yangnyŏng and the Enthronement of Prince Ch'ungnyŏng]. 민족문화논총 (in Korean) (58): 409–441.
• Yoon, Jeong (February 2013). 태종 18년 開城 移御와 한양 還都의 정치사적 의미 : 讓寧大君 세자 폐립과 세종 즉위과정에 대한 공간적 이해 :讓寧大君 세자 폐립과 세종 즉위과정에 대한 공간적 이해 [Taejong's Move to the Gaeseong/開城 city, and Subsequent Return to the Han'yang Capital : The Political Meaning of the Replacement of the Crown prince, and the Enthronement of King Sejong]. 서울학연구 (in Korean) (50): 109–144. doi:10.17647/jss.2013.02.50.109. ISSN 1225-746X – via DBpia.