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Partition of Punjab
Part of Partition of India and decolonisation of Asia
A train of East Punjabi Muslims heading towards West Punjab (1947)
Religious distribution of Punjab in the 1941 Census of India
Native name Panjāb dī vanḍ
Date17 August 1947; 77 years ago (1947-08-17)
LocationPunjab Province, British India
CauseIndian Independence Act 1947
Organised byBritish government
OutcomePunjab Province divided into East and West Punjab
• Muslim-majority West Punjab becomes a province of Pakistan
• Hindu-Sikh, majority East Punjab becomes a state of India
Deaths800,000–1.2 million[1][2]
Displaced12 million[a]
Part of a series on the
History of Punjab
Prehistoric
Ancient
Classical
Medieval
Colonial
Post-independence
History of Pakistan
History of India

The Partition of Punjab (Punjabi: Panjāb dī vanḍ) occurred on 17 August 1947 during the Partition of India when the Punjab Province was divided along the Radcliffe Line into East Punjab and West Punjab. The Punjabi Muslim-majority West Punjab became a province of Pakistan, while the Punjabi and Hindi-speaking Hindu-Sikh-majority East Punjab became a state of India.

The partition saw over 12 million people being displaced within Punjab, the largest population displacement in human history.[a] The Punjab experienced between 800,000 to 1.2 million deaths during the process.[1][2] The violence has been widely described as the worst catastrophe in Punjabi history.[4][5][6]

Background

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Proposals for partitioning Punjab had been made starting in 1908. Its proponents included the Hindu leader Bhai Parmanand, Congress leader Lala Lajpat Rai, industrialist G. D. Birla, and various Sikh leaders.[citation needed] After the 1940 Lahore resolution of the Muslim League demanding Pakistan, B. R. Ambedkar wrote a 400-page tract titled Thoughts on Pakistan.[7] In the tract, he discussed the boundaries of Muslim and non-Muslim regions of Punjab and Bengal. His calculations showed a Muslim majority in 16 western districts of Punjab and non-Muslim majority in 13 eastern districts. He thought the Muslims could have no objection to redrawing provincial boundaries. If they did, "they [did] not understand the nature of their own demand".[8][9]

The Punjab region in 1947 consisted of two political entities — the Punjab Province, under direct British rule, and the Punjab States Agency, consisting of the self-governing princely states of the region. Under the Indian Independence Act 1947, the rulers of the princely states were to decide the fate of their state; while the directly-ruled province's status was to be decided prior to independence under British supervision.

The Punjab Province and the princely states in 1909

In 1911, Punjab Province had a Muslim majority, forming 50.8 percent of the total population;[10][11] by 1941 – the final census conducted prior to partition – the population shared increased slightly to 53.2 percent.[12] Most Muslims were concentrated in western Punjab; while the non-Muslim population was mainly concentrated in eastern Punjab. Prior to the actual partition, religious violence erupted across the province in late-1946 and early-1947, highlighted by the 1947 Rawalpindi massacres, with riots occurring in major cities including Lahore, Amritsar, Rawalpindi and other parts of Punjab. This was one of the earliest large-scale instances of communal violence leading up to the partition.

Assembly resolution about partition

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By March 1947 when the new viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten arrived, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal had not abated. With the British Army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, Mountbatten wanted to advance the date for independence and the transfer of power.[13] On 2 March 1947, the Punjab Provincial Assembly convened, and the resolution for the partition of Punjab was formally presented. Another view that had arisen within the All-India Muslim League was to keep Punjab unified and incorporate the entire Muslim-majority province into Pakistan including its non-Muslim-majority eastern half. Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented the idea of an autonomous Sikh-majority eastern Punjab within Pakistan, but the plan was rejected by the Shiromani Akali Dal and Indian National Congress.

In June 1947 the nationalist leaders, including Nehru representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, and Baldev Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country and Mountbatten was able to rush the British withdrawal forward.[14] One month later, on 22 July 1947, the assembly voted with 73 votes in favour of partition and 62 votes against it. With the passing of the resolution for partition of the province, the Punjab Boundary Commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe was to demarcate Punjab into two provinces.[15] The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.[16]

Boundary Commission

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A map of the doabs of the Punjab region c. 1947.

In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs. Some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery were all disputed.[15] All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities: Pathankot, in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute; and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. Nonetheless, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej, in two of which Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together.[15]

Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman.[15] The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of Punjab, based on ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors." Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges, too, had no mandate to compromise, and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."[15]

Radcliffe Line

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Main article: Radcliffe Line

A crude border had already been drawn up by Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India prior to his replacement as Viceroy, in February 1947, by Lord Louis Mountbatten. In order to determine exactly which territories to assign to each country, in June 1947, Britain appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to chair two boundary commissions—one for Bengal and one for Punjab.[17]

The commission was instructed to "demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will also take into account other factors."[18] Other factors were undefined, giving Radcliffe leeway, but included decisions regarding "natural boundaries, communications, watercourses and irrigation systems", as well as socio-political consideration.[19] Each commission also had four representatives—two from the Indian National Congress and two from the Muslim League. Given the deadlock between the interests of the two sides and their rancorous relationship, the final decision was essentially Radcliffe's.

After arriving in India on 8 July 1947, Radcliffe was given just five weeks to decide on a border.[17] He soon met with his fellow college alumnus Mountbatten and travelled to Lahore and Calcutta to meet with commission members, chiefly Nehru from the Congress and Jinnah, president of the Muslim League.[20] He objected to the short time frame, but all parties were insistent that the line be finished by the 15 August British withdrawal from India. Mountbatten had accepted the post as Viceroy on the condition of an early deadline.[21] The decision was completed just a couple of days before the withdrawal, but due to political considerations, not published until 17 August 1947, two days after the grant of independence to India and Pakistan.[17]

Territorial demarcation

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The boundary commission's final report for the partition was submitted by Cyril Radcliffe to Viceroy Lord Mountbatten on 13 August 1947; and was announced by the viceroy on 17 August 1947.

Punjab was officially divided into two provinces, with the west incorporated into Pakistan and the east into India. The territorial demarcation was as following:

East Punjab: Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Kangra, Ludhiana, Ferozepore, Ambala, Karnal, Rohtak, Hissar, Gurgaon, Simla District, Gurdaspur district—only includingGurdaspur, Batala, Pathankot tahsils (except Shakargarh Tehsil), and Patti, Khemkaran town with 186 villages of Kasur tehsil of Lahore district.

West Punjab: Gujranwala, Sialkot, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Shahpur, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Montgomery, Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan, Shakargarh Tehsil of Gurdaspur district, Lahore District—only including Lahore Tahsil, Chunian Tehsil, and Kasur town, with the remaining 136 villages of Kasur Tehsil.

Result of Radcliffe line with 1941 census overlay (religious population bifurcation based on early 1947 notional division)[b]
West Punjab East Punjab
Subdivision Total population Muslim population Non-Muslim population Subdivision Total population Non-Muslim population Muslim population
Lahore District 1,695,375 1,027,772 (60.62%) 667,603 (39.38%) Patiala State 1,936,259 1,499,720 (77.45%) 436,539 (22.55%)
Multan District 1,484,333 1,157,911 (78.01%) 326,422 (21.99%) Firozpur district 1,423,076 781,628 (54.93%) 641,448 (45.07%)
Lyallpur District 1,396,305 877,518 (62.85%) 518,787 (37.15%) Amritsar district 1,413,876 756,181 (53.48%) 657,695 (46.52%)
Bahawalpur State 1,341,209 1,098,814 (81.93%) 242,395 (18.07%) Hoshiarpur district 1,170,323 789,564 (67.47%) 380,759 (32.53%)
Montgomery District 1,329,103 918,564 (69.11%) 410,539 (30.89%) Jalandhar district 1,127,190 617,386 (54.77%) 509,804 (45.23%)
Sialkot District 1,190,497 739,218 (62.09%) 451,279 (37.91%) Hill states 1,098,475 1,061,261 (96.61%) 37,214 (3.39%)
Gujrat District 1,104,952 945,609 (85.58%) 159,343 (14.42%) Hisar district 1,006,709 721,501 (71.67%) 285,208 (28.33%)
Shahpur District 998,921 835,918 (83.68%) 163,003 (16.32%) Karnal district 994,575 690,229 (69.4%) 304,346 (30.6%)
Gujranwala District 912,234 642,706 (70.45%) 269,528 (29.55%) Rohtak district 956,399 789,830 (82.58%) 166,569 (17.42%)
Sheikhupura District 852,508 542,344 (63.62%) 310,164 (36.38%) Kangra district 899,377 856,128 (95.19%) 43,249 (4.81%)
Jhang District 821,631 678,736 (82.61%) 142,895 (17.39%) Gurdaspur district[c] 862,006 421,683 (48.92%) 440,323 (51.08%)
Rawalpindi District 785,231 628,193 (80%) 157,038 (20%) Gurgaon district 851,458 565,466 (66.41%) 285,992 (33.59%)
Muzaffargarh District 712,849 616,074 (86.42%) 96,775 (13.58%) Ambala district 847,745 578,746 (68.27%) 268,999 (31.73%)
Attock District 675,875 611,128 (90.42%) 64,747 (9.58%) Ludhiana district 818,615 516,133 (63.05%) 302,482 (36.95%)
Jhelum District 629,658 563,033 (89.42%) 66,625 (10.58%) Kapurthala State 378,380 164,626 (43.51%) 213,754 (56.49%)
Dera Ghazi Khan District 581,350 512,678 (88.19%) 68,672 (11.81%) Jind State 361,812 310,840 (85.91%) 50,972 (14.09%)
Mianwali District 506,321 436,260 (86.16%) 70,061 (13.84%) Nabha State 344,044 269,671 (78.38%) 70,373 (20.45%)
Shakargarh Tehsil 291,505 149,600 (51.32%) 141,905 (48.68%) Faridkot State 199,283 137,931 (69.21%) 61,352 (30.79%)
Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract 40,246 40,084 (99.6%) 162 (0.4%) Malerkotla State 88,109 54,228 (61.55%) 33,881 (38.45%)
— — — — Kalsia State 67,393 42,344 (62.83%) 25,049 (37.17%)
— — — — Simla District 38,576 31,554 (81.8%) 7,022 (18.2%)
— — — — Dujana State 30,666 23,727 (77.37%) 6,939 (22.63%)
— — — — Loharu State 27,892 23,932 (85.8%) 3,960 (14.2%)
— — — — Pataudi State 21,520 17,865 (83.02%) 3,655 (16.98%)
West Punjab 17,350,103 13,022,160 (75.06%) 4,327,943 (24.94%) East Punjab 16,959,758 11,722,174 (69.12%) 5,237,584 (30.88%)

Partition and aftermath

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The Radcliffe Commission, tasked with assigning each district to either Pakistan or India, announced its award on 17 August 1947, two days after the transfer of power.[22] It divided the Sikh-dominated regions of the Punjab in equal proportion between the two dominions.[22] Sikh groups, which had feared the worst, had been preparing to mount a vigorous opposition to the award.[22]

To counter the expected violence, the British Raj government had formed a 50,000-strong Indian Boundary Force. When the violence began, the Force proved ineffectual. Most units, which had been recruited locally, had stronger ties to one or other of Punjab's three religious' groups, rendering them unable to maintain neutrality under stress.[22] Within days of the Boundary Commission’s award, large-scale communal violence broke out on both sides of the new border.[23] Long columns of refugees began moving east and west in search of safety in the newly formed dominions.[22] Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs engaged in retaliatory attacks as the situation descended into widespread chaos, marked by brutal atrocities; lines of civilians and oxcarts traveling in both directions were attacked and overwhelmed while refugee trains were intercepted, and their occupants killed, regardless of age or gender[22] – the 1947 Amritsar train massacre and the 1948 Gujrat train massacre being amongst the most infamous examples. By September 1947, the arrival of Hindu refugees from West Punjab into Delhi unsettled the established Muslim community and temporarily destabilized the newly formed Indian government.[24][22]

The violence in the Punjab has been described by some scholars as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions.[25] The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women.[26][27][28] The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s.

Mountbatten's decision to hasten the transfer of power has received both praise and criticism over the years. Supporters feel that an early transfer had the effect of forcing Indian politicians into abandoning petty quarrels and accepting their obligations in stopping an outrage that Great Britain was no longer able to control. Critics feel that if the British had stayed on for another year, had institutions in place for a transition, had the army readied in troublesome areas, a less violent transfer might have resulted.[29]

Demography

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The most significant consequence of partition in relation to demography was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity that occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province in 1947. This rapid demographic shift between the 1941 census and 1951 census was primarily due to wide scale migration between 1946 and 1948, but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[30]

A direct result of the religious cleansing that accompanied the partition of Punjab, stark religious demographic shifts occurred as noted above, documented by the 1941 and 1951 censuses in west and east Punjab. By 1951, the Muslim population in Indian Punjab numbered 300,246 persons (1.8%) in contrast with a population of approximately 5,237,584 persons (30.9%) in 1941.[31][d] Similarly, the 1951 census in Pakistani Punjab recorded a Hindu population of 33,052 persons (0.2 percent) as opposed to a population that numbered 2,373,466 persons (13.7%) in 1941.[32][33][e] Additionally, the Sikh and Jain populations numbered 1,530,112 persons (8.8%) and 9,520 persons (0.1%) respectively in 1941;[e] neither religious community was enumerated in the 1951 census of Pakistani Punjab as the combined population had declined to a negligible level – only 35 persons (0%) were classified as "other" in the entire province.[32][33]

Exact religious population figures for 1941 relative to post-partition Indian and Pakistani Punjab borders are not available due to administrative complexities; granular and detailed sub-tehsil demographic data and statistics did not form part of the 1941 census – Kasur Tehsil in Lahore District was split between India and Pakistan; Patti sub-tehsil (including the town of Patti, Khemkaran and 186 nearby villages) fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line, in contemporary India. The remaining area of Kasur sub-tehsil (136 villages) fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line, in contemporary Pakistan.[12]

Population of Punjab Province (British India) region (1931–1961)
Census year Punjab Province (British India) region West Punjab region East Punjab region
Total population Percentage Population Percentage Population Percentage
1931 28,490,857 100% 14,040,798 49.28% 14,450,059 50.72%
1941[12][e][d] 34,309,861 100% 17,350,103 50.57% 16,959,758 49.43%
1951[32][33][31] 37,626,894 100% 20,651,140 54.88% 16,975,754 45.12%
1961 47,277,393 100% 25,619,437 54.19% 21,657,956 45.81%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, India, Chandigarh Union Territory, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Pakistan, and Islamabad Capital Territory.

1941 census

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Religious groups in Punjab Province (British India) (1941 Census)
Religious
group 		Punjab Province (British India)[12] West Punjab[12][e] East Punjab[12][d]
Total population Percentage Population Percentage Population Percentage
Islam 18,259,744 53.22% 13,022,160 75.06% 5,237,584 30.88%
Hinduism 10,336,549 30.13% 2,373,466 13.68% 7,963,083 46.95%
Sikhism 5,116,185 14.91% 1,530,112 8.82% 3,586,073 21.14%
Christianity 512,466 1.49% 395,311 2.28% 117,155 0.69%
Jainism 45,475 0.13% 9,520 0.05% 35,955 0.21%
Zoroastrianism 4,359 0.01% 312 0% 4,047 0.02%
Buddhism 854 0% 87 0% 767 0%
Judaism 39 0% 7 0% 32 0%
Others 34,190 0.1% 19,128 0.11% 15,062 0.09%
Total population 34,309,861 100% 17,350,103 100% 16,959,758 100%
Note 1 - Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, India, Chandigarh Union Territory, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Pakistan, and Islamabad Capital Territory.
Note 2 - Erstwhile Lahore District wholly included in West Punjab population, however the 1947 Radcliffe Line bifurcated Kasur Tehsil; one portion (Patti town, Khemkaran town, and 186 surrounding villages) was allocated to East Punjab (India), while the other portion (Kasur town and 136 surrounding villages) was allocated to West Punjab (Pakistan). The 1941 census did not include granular data at the sub-tehsil level.

1951 census

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The 1951 census revealed significant refugee movement due to the partition; 25% of Pakistani Punjab's population was born in India, while 16% of Indian Punjab's population was born in Pakistan.[34]

Religious groups in Punjab Province (British India) region (1951 Census of India & 1951 Census of Pakistan)
Religious
group 		Punjab Province (British India) region West Punjab (Pakistan)[32][33] East Punjab (India)[31]
Total population Percentage Population Percentage Population Percentage
Islam 20,501,040 54.51% 20,200,794 97.89% 300,246 1.77%
Hinduism 11,002,672 29.25% 33,052 0.16% 10,969,620 64.62%
Sikhism 5,558,937 14.78% — — 5,558,937 32.75%
Christianity 501,792 1.33% 402,617 1.95% 99,175 0.58%
Jainism 45,130 0.12% — — 45,130 0.27%
Buddhism 1,671 0% 9 0% 1,662 0.01%
Zoroastrianism 370 0% 195 0% 175 0%
Judaism 159 0% — — 159 0%
Others 685 0% 35 0% 650 0%
Total responses 37,612,456 99.96% 20,636,702[f] 99.93% 16,975,754 100%
Total population 37,626,894 100% 20,651,140 100% 16,975,754 100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, India, Chandigarh Union Territory, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Pakistan, and Islamabad Capital Territory.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole."[3]
  2. ^ Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman.[15] The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of Punjab, based on ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors." Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges, too, had no mandate to compromise, and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."[15]
  3. ^ Including Gurdaspur Tehsil, Batala Tehsil, and Pathankot Tehsil. Excluding Shakargarh Tehsil, which was ultimately situated to the west of the Radcliffe Line.
  4. ^ a b c 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Sirmoor, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here:[12]
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  5. ^ a b c d 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here:[12]
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  6. ^ Excluding 14,438 persons claiming Nationalities other than Pakistani.

References

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  1. ^ a b Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (30 August 2008). "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" (PDF). Economic & Political Weekly: 43. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
  2. ^ a b Nisid Hajari (2015). Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-547-66921-2. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
  3. ^ Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar (4 February 2013). "India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration". The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration. doi:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285. ISBN 9781444334890. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  4. ^ "The 'bloody' Punjab partition – VIII". 27 September 2018. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  5. ^ Ahmed, Ishtiaq (31 January 2013). "The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed". Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
  6. ^ Butt, Shafiq (24 April 2016). "A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges". Dawn. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
  7. ^ Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji (1941) [first published 1940], Thoughts on Pakistan, Bombay: Thacker and company
  8. ^ Sialkoti, Punjab Boundary Line Issue 2014, p. 73–76.
  9. ^ Dhulipala, Creating a New Medina 2015, pp. 124, 134, 142–144, 149: "Thoughts on Pakistan 'rocked Indian politics for a decade'."
  10. ^ "Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables". 1911. JSTOR saoa.crl.25393788. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  11. ^ Kaul, Harikishan (1911). "Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II". Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h India Census Commissioner (1941). "Census of India, 1941. Vol. 6, Punjab". p. 42. JSTOR saoa.crl.28215541. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
  13. ^ "Indian Independence". British Library: Help for Researchers. British Library. Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2014. portal to educational sources available in the India Office Records
  14. ^ Geva, Rotem (2022), Delhi Reborn: Partition and Nation Building in India's Capital, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, p. 113, ISBN 9781503631199, LCCN 2021051794, On June 3 Mountbatten made his historic announcement that British withdrawal would take place much earlier, on August 15, 1947, and would effectuate the partition of India. Once Nehru, Jinnah, and the Sikh leader Baldev Singh publicly endorsed the plan, the way was paved for a rushed withdrawal
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Spate 1947, pp. 126–137
  16. ^ "The Road to Partition 1939–1947". Nationalarchives.gov.uk Classroom Resources. National Archives. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  17. ^ a b c Frank Jacobs (3 July 2012). "Peacocks at Sunset". Opinionator: Borderlines. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  18. ^ Mansergy
  19. ^ Read & Fisher, The Proudest Day 1998, p. 483
  20. ^ Read & Fisher, The Proudest Day 1998, pp. 482–483
  21. ^ Read & Fisher, The Proudest Day 1998, p. 418: "He wrote to then Prime Minister Clement Attlee, 'It makes all the difference to me to know that you propose to make a statement in the House, terminating the British 'Raj' on a definite and specified date; or earlier than this date, if the Indian Parties can agree a constitution and form a Government before this.'"
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Spear 1990, p. 238.
  23. ^ "The Road to Partition 1939–1947". Nationalarchives.gov.uk Classroom Resources. National Archives. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  24. ^ Spear 1990 - 238-239 page of History of India part -2
  25. ^ Brass, Paul R. (2003). "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. Carfax Publishing: Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 81–82 (5(1), 71–101). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014. In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder.
  26. ^ Daiya, Kavita (2011). Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India. Temple University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-59213-744-2. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.
  27. ^ Singh, Amritjit; Iyer, Nalini; Gairola, Rahul K. (2016). Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics. Lexington Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4985-3105-4. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.
  28. ^ Abraham, Taisha (2002). Women and the Politics of Violence. Har-Anand Publications. p. 131. ISBN 978-81-241-0847-5. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.
  29. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 220.
  30. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 188–189.
  31. ^ a b c Punjab, PEPSU, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur and Delhi: Part II-A – General Population, Age and Social Tables. Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. 1955. p. 296. Retrieved 30 April 2025.
  32. ^ a b c d "Census of Pakistan, 1951 Population According to Religion Table 6". p. 12. Retrieved 30 April 2025.
  33. ^ a b c d Census of Pakistan, 1951 — Table 6: Population According to Religion. Census of Pakistan, 1951 — Table 6: Population According to Religion (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 188.

Bibliography

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