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Middle Chinese finals

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In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries.[1]

Finals and rhyme classes

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Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final:[2]

  • Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
  • Six rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: 戈 (closed) -wa, -jwa (rows 1 and 3); 麻 -æ, -jæ (rows 2 and 3); 庚 -æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); 陌 -æk, -jæk (rows 2 and 3); 東 -uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); 屋 -uwk, -juwk (rows 1 and 3).
  • Some so-called chóngniǔ rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized; with sporadic exceptions.[3][4] However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the row-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals.[5]

Classes of finals

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Karlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials.[6] Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed:[7][8]

div. I div. II "division-III" finals div. IV
indep. mixed chongniu
Labials 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Dental stops 1 4
Retroflex 2 3 3
Lateral 1 3 3 4
Dental sibilants 1 4 4 4
Palatal 3 3
Retroflex 2 2 2
Velars 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Laryngeals 1 2 3 3 3 4 4

The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.

Significance of the division

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There are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).

The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/, /e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.

Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)

List of finals

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The following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Some columns are not strictly in IPA.

Some LMC outcomes are conditioned by the EMC initials, which are represented using the following codes:

  • G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
  • P = labial (includes labiodental)
  • PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
  • A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
  • SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
  • ST = alveolar sibilant
  • M = /m/
  • RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/

The rhyme groups (攝) are given per Yunjing, and the rhyme classes consist of Qieyun rhyme name, division number (一 to 四), and rounding (開 or 合). Division-III rhymes may have the letter m after them when belonging to "mixed division-III", or letters A and B indicating rhyme doublets, otherwise they are "pure" division-III rhymes.

rhyme group rhyme class Karlgren Li Rong Wang Li Baxter Pan Wuyun Zhengzhang Zhu Jianing Pulleyblank[a] Abraham Y.S. Chan
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
果 歌一開 ɑ ɑ ɑ a ɑ ɑ ɑ a [ɑ] a [ɑ],
Pua [ɑ] 		ɑ ɐ
戈三開m i̯ɑ iɑ ĭɑ ja i̯ɑ ɨɑ jɑ ɨa [ɨɑ] ia [iɑ] œ
戈一合 uɑ uɑ uɑ wa ʷɑ uɑ uɑ wa [wɑ] ua [uɑ] wɑ wɐ
戈三合m i̯wɑ iuɑ ĭuɑ jwa ʷi̯ɑ ɨuɑ juɑ ua [uɑ] ya [yɑ] wœ
假 麻二開 a a a æ ɰæ ɣa a aɨ (ɛɨ) aː [ɑː],
Gjaː [Gjɑː] 		æ ɛ
麻三開m i̯a ia ĭa jæ iæ ia ja ia [iɑ] ia [iɑ] jæ jɛ
麻二合 wa ua ĭwa wæ ʷɰæ ɣua ua waɨ (wɛɨ) waː [wɑː] wæ wɛ
遇 模一合 uo o u u u̯o uo u ɔ uə̆ [uɔ] u ə
魚三合m i̯wo iɔ ĭo jo iɤ ɨʌ jo ɨə̆ iə̆ [iɛ], SRəə̆ [SRɤ]
(yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ]) 		œ ø
虞三合m i̯u io ĭu ju iu̯o̝ ɨo ju uə̆ yə̆ [yɛ],
SRuə̆ [SRuɔ] 		ø
蟹 咍一開 ɑ̌i ɒi ɒi oj o̝i ʌi ɒi əj aj əj əj
泰一開 ɑi ɑi ɑi ajH ɑi ɑi ɒi aj ɑj ɐj
皆二開 ə̆i ɛi ɐi ɛj ɰɛi ɣɛi ai əɨj aːj,
Gjaːj 		ɛj
佳二開 ai ɛ ai ɛ (ɛɨ) ɰɛ ɣɛ æ aɨj ɛ
夬二開 ai æi æjH ɰæi ɣai ɐi aɨj(s) æj
祭三開A i̯ɛi jɛi ĭɛi jiejH iᴇi iᴇi jæi jiaj PGjiaj jej jej
祭三開B iɛi jejH ɻiᴇi ɣiᴇi iaj iaj ej ej
廢三開 i̯æi iɐi ĭɐi jojH iai ɨɐi jɐi ɨaj øj øj
齊四開 iei ei iei ej ei ei iei ɛj PGjiaj,
Aiaj 		ɐj ɪj
灰一合 uɑ̌i uɒi uɒi woj u̯oi uʌi uɒi wəj uaj ʏj ʏj
泰一合 wɑi uɑi uɑi wajH ʷɑi uɑi uɒi waj wɑj wɐj
皆二合 wə̆i uɛi wɐi wɛj ʷɰɛi ɣuɛi uai wəɨj waːj wɛj
佳二合 wai uɛ wai wɛ (wɛɨ) ʷɰɛ ɣuɛ uæ waɨj wɛ
夬二合 wai uai wæi wæjH ʷɰæi ɣuai uɐi waɨj(s) wæj
祭三合A i̯wɛi juɛi ĭwɛi jwiejH ʷiᴇi iuᴇi juæi jwiaj PGjyaj wjej wjej
祭三合B iuɛi jwejH ʷɻiᴇi ɣiuᴇi wiaj yaj wej wej
廢三合 i̯wæi iuɐi ĭwɐi jwojH ʷiai ʉɐi juɐi uaj wøj wøj
齊四合 iwei uei iwei wej ʷei wei iuei wɛj Gjyaj wɐj wɪj
止 支三開B iě ie ĭe je ɻiᴇ ɣiᴇ ie iə̆ i, SRṛ, STẓ e i
支三開A je jie iᴇ iᴇ iɪ jiə̆ PGji je ji
脂三開A i ji i jij i iɪ iɪi ji ji
脂三開B i ij ɻi ɣiɪ iei i i,
SRṛ, STẓ 		i i
之三開m iə ĭə i ɨ ɨ i ɨ e
微三開 ěi iəi ĭəi jɨj iɤi ɨi iəi ɨj i yj yj
支三合A wiě jue ĭwe jwie ʷiᴇ iuᴇ iuɪ jwiə̆ PGjyj wje wji
支三合B iue jwe ʷɻiᴇ ɣiuᴇ iue wiə̆ yj,
SRuj 		we wi
脂三合B wi ui wi wij ʷɻi ɣiuɪ iuei wi wi
脂三合A jui jwij ʷi iuɪ iuɪi jwi PGjyj wji wji
微三合 wěi iuəi ĭwəi jwɨj ʷiɤi ʉi iuəi uj yj wyj wyj
效 豪一開 ɑu ɑu ɑu aw ɑu ɑu ɑu aw (u)aw ɑw ɐw
肴二開 au au au æw ɰæu ɣau au aɨw aːw,
Gjaːw 		ɛw ɛw
宵三開B i̯ɛu iɛu ĭɛu jew ɻiᴇu ɣiᴇu iau iaw iaw ew ew
宵三開A jɛu jiew iᴇu iᴇu iæu jiaw PGjiaw,
Aiaw 		jew jew
蕭四開 ieu eu ieu ew eu eu iɛu ɛw ɪw ɪw
流 侯一開 ə̆u u əu uw u əu əu əw əw ʉ u
尤三開m iə̆u iu ĭəu juw iu ɨu iəu uw iw,
SRəw, Məw 		y y
幽三開A i̯ĕu iĕu iəu jiw ɨu iɪu iɪu jiw jiw iw iw
咸 覃一開 ɑ̌m ɒm ɒm om əm ʌm əm əm am ɔm ɔm
談一開 ɑm ɑm ɑm am ɑm ɑm ɑm am ɑm ɐm
咸二開 ə̆m ɐm ɐm ɛm ɰɛm ɣɛm æm əɨm aːm,
Gjaːm 		ɛm ɛm
銜二開 am am am æm ɰæm ɣam am aɨm æm
鹽三開A i̯ɛm jɛm ĭɛm jiem iᴇm iᴇm iæm jiam PGjiam jem jem
鹽三開B iɛm jem ɻiᴇm ɣiᴇm iam iam iam em em
嚴三開 i̯æm iɐm ĭɐm jæm iam ɨɐm iɑm ɨam øm øm
添四開 iem em iem em em em iɛm ɛm PGjiam,
Aiam 		ɪm ɪm
凡三合 i̯wæm iuɐm ĭwɐm jom/jwom? iu̯am ʉɐm iuam uam iam œm øm
深 侵三開B i̯əm iəm ĭĕm im ɻim ɣiɪm iem im im,
SRəm 		im im
侵三開A jəm jim im iɪm iɪm jim PGjim jim jim
山 寒一開 ɑn ɑn ɑn an ɑn ɑn ɑn an an ɑn ɐn
刪二開 an an an æn ɰæn ɣan æn aɨn aːn,
Gjaːn 		æn ɛn
山二開 ə̆n ɛn æn ɛn ɰɛn ɣɛn an əɨn ɛn
仙三開A i̯ɛn jɛn ĭɛn jien iᴇn iᴇn iæn jian PGjian jen jen
仙三開B iɛn jen ɻiᴇn ɣiᴇn ian ian ian en en
元三開 i̯æn iɐn ĭɐn jon iɤn ɨɐn iɑn ɨan øn øn
先四開 ien en ien en en en iɛn ɛn PGjian,
Aian 		ɪn ɪn
桓一合 uɑn uɑn uɑn wan ʷɑn uɑn uɑn wan uan wɑn wɐn
刪二合 wan uan wan wæn ʷɰæn ɣuan uæn waɨn waːn wæn wɛn
山二合 wə̆n uɛn wæn wɛn ʷɰɛn ɣuɛn uan wəɨn wɛn
仙三合A i̯wɛn juɛn ĭwɛn jwien ʷiᴇn iuᴇn iuæn jwian PGjyan wjen wjen
仙三合B iuɛn jwen ʷɻiᴇn ɣiuᴇn iuan wian yan wen wen
元三合 i̯wæn iuɐn ĭwɐn jwon ʷiɤn ʉɐn iuɑn uan wøn wøn
先四合 iwen uen iwen wen ʷen wen iuɛn wɛn jyan wɪn wɪn
臻 痕一開 ən ən ən on ən ən ən ən ən ən ən
臻三開B i̯ɛn iɛn ĭæn in in ɪn en in in,
SRən 		in in
眞三開B i̯ēn iēn ĭĕn ɻin ɣiɪn ien
眞三開A jēn jin ɪn iɪn iɪn jin PGjin jin jin
欣三開 i̯ən iən ĭən jɨn ɨn ɨn iən ɨn in in yn
魂一合 u̯ən uən uən won u̯on uən uən wən un ʏn ʏn
眞三合B i̯wēn iuēn ĭĕn win ʷɻin ɣiuɪn iuen win yn win win
諄三合B i̯uēn iuēn ĭwĕn
諄三合A juēn jwin ʷin iuɪn iuɪn jwin PGjyn jwin jwin
文三合 i̯uən iuən ĭuən jun iun ɨun iuən un yn,
SRut 		yn yn
宕 唐一開 ɑŋ ɑŋ ɑŋ aŋ ɑŋ ɑŋ ɑŋ aŋ [ɑŋ] aŋ [ɑŋ] ɑŋ ɐŋ
陽三開m i̯aŋ iaŋ ĭaŋ jaŋ iaŋ ɨɐŋ iɑŋ ɨaŋ [ɨɑŋ] iaŋ [iɑŋ],
SRaːŋ [SRɑːŋ] 		œŋ œŋ
唐一合 wɑŋ uɑŋ uɑŋ waŋ ʷɑŋ wɑŋ uɑŋ waŋ [wɑŋ] uaŋ [uɑŋ] wɑŋ wɐŋ
陽三合m i̯waŋ iuaŋ ĭwaŋ jwaŋ ʷiaŋ ʉɐŋ iuaŋ uaŋ [uɑŋ] yaŋ [yɑŋ] wœŋ wœŋ
江 江二開 ɔŋ ɔŋ ɔŋ æwŋ oŋ ɣʌŋ oŋ aɨwŋ ɰɔŋ ɔŋ ɔŋ
曾 登一開 əŋ əŋ əŋ oŋ əŋ əŋ əŋ əŋ əə̆ŋ [ɤŋ] oŋ oŋ
蒸三開m i̯əŋ iəŋ ĭəŋ iŋ ɨŋ ɨŋ iəŋ iŋ iə̆ŋ [iɛŋ],
iə̆k [iɛk],
SRəə̆k [SRɤk] 		iŋ iŋ
登一合 wəŋ uəŋ uəŋ woŋ ʷəŋ wəŋ uəŋ wəŋ uə̆ŋ [uɔŋ] woŋ woŋ
蒸三合m i̯wəŋ iuəŋ ĭwəŋ wiŋ ʷɨŋ wɨŋ iuəŋ wiŋ yə̆ŋ [yɛŋ] wiŋ wiŋ
梗 庚二開 æŋ ɐŋ ɐŋ æŋ ɰæŋ ɣæŋ aŋ aɨjŋ aːjŋ,
Gjaːjŋ 		æŋ ɛŋ
耕二開 ɛŋ ɛŋ æŋ ɛŋ ɰɛŋ ɣɛŋ æŋ əɨjŋ ɛŋ
庚三開B i̯æŋ iɐŋ ĭɐŋ jæŋ iaŋ ɣiæŋ iaŋ iajŋ ɰiæŋ eŋ jɛŋ
清三開B i̯ɛŋ iɛŋ ĭɛŋ jeŋ － iᴇŋ iæŋ iajŋ iajŋ eŋ
清三開A jɛŋ jieŋ iᴇŋ iᴇŋ jiajŋ PGjiajŋ,
Aiajŋ 		jeŋ jeŋ
青四開 ieŋ eŋ ieŋ eŋ eŋ eŋ iɛŋ ɛjŋ ɪŋ ɪŋ
庚二合 wæŋ uɐŋ wɐŋ wæŋ ʷɰæŋ wɣæŋ uaŋ waɨjŋ waːjŋ wæŋ wɛŋ
耕二合 wɛŋ uɛŋ wæŋ wɛŋ ʷɯɛŋ wɣɛŋ uæŋ wəɨjŋ wɛŋ
庚三合B i̯wæŋ iuɐŋ ĭwɐŋ jwæŋ ʷɰiæŋ wɣiæŋ iuaŋ wiajŋ yajŋ weŋ wjɛŋ
清三合B i̯wɛŋ iuɛŋ ĭwɛŋ jweŋ － wiᴇŋ iuæŋ wiajŋ weŋ
清三合A juɛŋ jwieŋ ʷiᴇŋ wiᴇŋ jwiajŋ jyajŋ wjeŋ wjeŋ
青四合 iweŋ ueŋ iweŋ weŋ ʷeŋ weŋ iuɛŋ Kwɛjŋ wɪŋ wɪŋ
通 東一合 uŋ uŋ uŋ uwŋ uŋ uŋ uŋ əwŋ əwŋ ʉŋ ʉŋ
冬一合 uoŋ oŋ uoŋ owŋ u̯oŋ uoŋ uoŋ awŋ uŋ əŋ
東三合m iuŋ iuŋ ĭuŋ juwŋ iuŋ ɨuŋ iuŋ uwŋ iwŋ,
SRəwŋ, Məwŋ 		yŋ yŋ
鍾三合m i̯woŋ ioŋ ĭwoŋ jowŋ io̝ŋ ɨoŋ iuoŋ uawŋ ywŋ øŋ øŋ

Modern reflexes

[edit]
See also: Sino-Japanese vocabulary § Correspondences between Middle Chinese and on'yomi
See also: Hokkien phonology § Historical phonology and internal differences

The following tables show the general development of Early Middle Chinese finals in modern languages.

The languages are as follows:

A single MC final may have multiple modern outcomes, depending on the MC initial. The initials are indicated using the following codes:

  • P — labials (p, ph, b, m)
  • F — MC labials becoming fricatives (f, w, or h(u)) in modern languages
  • T — dental plosives (t, th, d, n)
  • S — dental sibilants (ts, tsh, dz, s, z)
  • K — velars (k, kh, g, ŋ) and gutturals (x, h, ʔ, y)
  • Tr — retroflex plosives (tr, trh, dr)
  • Sy — palatal sibilants (tsy, tsyh, dzy, sy, zy)
  • Sr — retroflex sibilants (tsr, tsrh, dzr, sr)

The finals 來 l and 娘 nr may behave like T and Tr respectively, but sometimes they have different patterns.

For Min languages, only the literary reflexes are given.

Open-vowel finals

[edit]

Groups 果 and 假

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Rhyme Class 歌 戈 歌 戈 麻 麻 戈
Division 一 一 一 一 二 三 三
Rounding 開 合 開 合 開 合 開 開 合
Initial TS T S P K K TrSr P K K Sy S 以 K K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔː uɔː aː uaː ɛː iɛː ɛː œː
Watlam ɵ ɔ ɛ iɛ ɛ œ
Taishan ɔ a e ie ia
Hakka Moiyen ɔ uɔ a ua a ia io
Gan Nanchang o uo a ua a ia
Wu Kaihua o ɔ ɔ,
iɔ 		uɔ ie ia ye
Wenzhou əu o u o ei i ɿ y
Shanghai u o a,
ia 		o ia yø
Mandarin Lianshui o a a,
ia 		ua ei i y
Wuhan o a ia ua ə ie ye
Beijing uo ə ə,
uo 		a ia ua ə iɛ yɛ
Min
 Northern Wuyishan o a ua ia yo
Jian'ou ɔ o a ua ia iɔ
Central Yong'an aɯ ɯ ɒ uɒ iɒ iɯ
Eastern Fuzhou ɔ uɔ a ua ia yo uo
Ningde ɔ u a ua ie y u
Hinghwa Xianyou ɒ ɒ,
o 		ɒ a ua ia iɛu ya
Southern Choanchew o a a ua ia io
Changchew ɛ
Teochew ia
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on a wa ja e we ja e
Kan-on a wa a wa ja a
Korean a wa a wa a wa a ja a wa
Vietnamese a wa a wa a wa a wa

Group 止

[edit]
Rhyme Class 支
脂 		支
脂
之 		支
脂
之
微 		支
脂
之 		支
脂 		微
Division 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 合 合
Initial P T K TrSy SrS TrSy S Sr K K F
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ei ei, iː iː ɵy uɐi ei
Watlam i ui ɔi uai i
Taishan ei ei, i i u ui ei
Hakka Moiyen i ɿ ui ɔi ui i
Gan Nanchang i ɿ i ai ui i
Wu Kaihua i, e i ɿ ui ue ui i
Wenzhou ei ɿ ai uai ei
Shanghai i ɿ ø e ue i
Mandarin Lianshui i, ei ei i ɿ uei ei uɛ uei ei
Wuhan i, ei i ɿ uei ei uai uei ei
Beijing i, ei i ɿ uei uai uei ei
Min
 Northern Wuyishan ei i u y əu ui əu ue, ei
Jian'ou i u y o y i
Central Yong'an i ɿ ue yi yi, ue ue
Eastern Fuzhou i i, ei ie y uei øy uei uei, i
Ningde i, ei ou oi øy oi, ui ui, i
Hinghwa Xianyou i o ui uoi ui uoi, i
Southern Choanchew i ɯ ui ue ui
Changchew u
Teochew ə
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on i i, e i ui wi i
Kan-on i ui wi i
Korean i i, ɰi i a u ø ju, y,
we 		i, y i
Vietnamese i ɨ wi i, wi i

Group 蟹 (open)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 咍
泰 		咍 泰 皆
夬
佳 		皆
佳 		祭 祭
齊
Division 一 二 三 三四
Rounding 開 開 開 開
Initial P TSK K T PTrSr K TrSy P TS K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ui ɔi aːi ɐi
Watlam ui ɔi ai i ai
Taishan ɔi ai
Hakka Moiyen i ɔi ai ʅ i
Gan Nanchang i ai ʅ i
Wu Kaihua e, i ɛ ʅ, i i e i
Wenzhou ai e a ei i
Shanghai e a ʅ i
Mandarin Lianshui ei ɛ ʅ i
Wuhan ei ai ʅ i, ei i
Beijing ei ai iɛ ʅ i
Min
 Northern Wuyishan ui uai, ai uai ai i ei i
Jian'ou o uɛ, ai uɛ ai i
Central Yong'an ue ue, a a ia ʅ i e
Eastern Fuzhou uei ai ie ei, i ɛ, i ie
Ningde ui ai i ei, i ɛ, i i
Hinghwa Xianyou uoi ai e e, i e
Southern Choanchew ue ai e e, i e, i e
Changchew i
Teochew i
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on ai e e, ai ai e
Kan-on ai ei
Korean ɛ je je, i je
Vietnamese oi ai e

Group 蟹 (closed)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 灰
泰 		皆
夬 		佳 廢
祭
Division 一 二 二 三
Rounding 合 合 合 合
Initial P TS K K K F TrSyS K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard uːi ɵy uːi, uɐi uaːi uaː ɐi ɵy uɐi
Watlam ui uɔi uɔ i ui ei
Taishan ɔi ui ɔi ai a ei ui uai
Hakka Moiyen i, ɔi ui ui, uai uai ua i ɔi ui, i
Gan Nanchang i ui, i ui, uai uai ua i ui
Wu Kaihua e ui, ue uɛ uɔ e ui
Wenzhou ai a o ei ʅ u, y
Shanghai e ø ue ua o i ø ue
Mandarin Lianshui ei uei uɛ ua ei uei, ei uei
Wuhan ei uei uai ua ei uei
Beijing ei uei uai ua ei uei
Min
 Northern Wuyishan ui uai ua ue əu
Jian'ou o uɛ ua i y
Central Yong'an ue ue uɒ yi ue yi
Eastern Fuzhou uei uei, øy uei uai ua ie uei ie
Ningde ui ɔi, øy ui uoi uo i ui i
Hinghwa Xianyou uoi uoi, ui uoi uoi ua i uoi e
Southern Choanchew ue, ui ui, ue uai ua ui ue ui
Changchew ue
Teochew
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on e, ai ai we o ai we
Kan-on ai wai ai ei wei
Korean ɛ ø, ɛ ø wɛ je je, ju
Vietnamese ui wai e we

Group 遇

[edit]
Rhyme Class 魚 模 虞 魚 虞 魚 虞
Division 三 一 三 三 三 三 三
Rounding 開 開 合 開 合 開 合
Initial Sr S T P K F TrSy TrSy S S 來，娘 K K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔː ou uː yː ɵy
Watlam ɵ u y
Taishan o u i ui
Hakka Moiyen ʅ u i
Gan Nanchang u i
Wu Kaihua u,
ɔ 		u,
uo 		y,
yo 		y
Wenzhou əu øy u u,
øy 		ʅ øy y
Shanghai u ʅ y
Mandarin Lianshui u y
Wuhan ou u y i y
Beijing u y
Min
 Northern Wuyishan u y əu
Jian'ou u y
Central Yong'an ɒu u y
Eastern Fuzhou u ou,
u 		uɔ ou,
u 		øy,
y
Ningde u ou,
u 		u ou,
u 		øy,
y
Hinghwa Xianyou ø ɔu u y
Southern Choanchew ɔ u ɯ u ɯ u
Changchew i
Teochew o ou ə u ə u
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on jo u jo o u o u
Kan-on o u ju jo ju jo u
Korean o u ju ə jə y jə ə u
Vietnamese ɨ o u ɨ u ɨ u

Groups 效 and 流

[edit]
Rhyme Class 豪 肴 宵 宵
蕭 		侯 尤 尤
幽
Division 一 二 三 三四 一 三 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 開 開 開
Initial PTSK PTrSr K TrSy PTSK TSK Sr TrSy 來，娘 S K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ou aːu iːu ɐu
Watlam əu ɔu iu au
Taishan ɔu iɔu eu iu
Hakka Moiyen au iau ɛu u iu
Gan Nanchang au ɛu iɛu ɛu iu
Wu Kaihua əɯ əɯ,
iəɯ 		iəɯ ɯ iɯ
Wenzhou ɜ uɔ iɛ au ɤu au
Shanghai ɔ ɔ,
iɔ 		ɔ iɔ ɤ iɤ
Mandarin Lianshui ɔ ɔ,
iɔ 		ɔ iɔ əu iu
Wuhan au iau au iau əu iəu
Beijing au iau au iau ou iou
Min
 Northern Wuyishan au iu iəu iu
Jian'ou au iau e iu
Central Yong'an aɯ o iɯ ø iau
Eastern Fuzhou ɔ au ieu ɛu ieu
Ningde ɔ au iɐu ɛu iu,
eu
Hinghwa Xianyou ɒ au ieu iu
Southern Choanchew o,
au 		au iau ɯo iu
Changchew ɔ
Teochew au,
o 		ou
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on au eu u ju ju, juu u ju u,
juu
Kan-on au eu ou ou iu
Korean o jo,
o 		jo jo,
o 		jo u ju u,
ju
Vietnamese au jau,

iəu

iəu əu ɨu u ɨu u ɨu,
əu

Nasal coda finals

[edit]

Groups 咸 and 深

[edit]
Rhyme Class 談 覃 談 銜
咸 		凡 鹽 鹽
添 		嚴
鹽
添 		鹽 侵
Division 一 二 三 三 三四 三四 三 三
Rounding 開 開 開 合 開 開 開 開 開
Initial K TS TrSr K F TrSy TS K P P S K TrSy Sr
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɐm aːm aːn iːm iːn ɐn ɐm
Watlam ɔm iɛm im ɛn an am
Taishan am an iam en in im am
Hakka Moiyen am iam ian in im əm ɛm
Gan Nanchang on on,
an 		an ɛn iɛn in ən ɛn
Wu Kaihua ã iɛ̃ ã iɛ̃ iŋ iŋ,
ɛ̃ 		iŋ,
yɛ̃ 		ɛ̃
Wenzhou y,
ø 		a,
ø 		a i eŋ aŋ iaŋ aŋ
Shanghai ø ø,
e 		e,
ø 		e ø i iɲ əɲ
Mandarin Lianshui æ̃ iaŋ æ̃ æ̃,
iẽ 		iẽ in ən
Wuhan an an,
iɛn 		an iɛn in ən
Beijing an iɛn an iɛn in ən
Min
 Northern Wuyishan ɔŋ aŋ uaiŋ iŋ eiŋ iŋ aiŋ
Jian'ou ɔŋ aŋ uaŋ iŋ eiŋ aiŋ
Central Yong'an õ um iɛ̃i ɛ̃i ã iã ĩ
Eastern Fuzhou aŋ uaŋ ieŋ iŋ eiŋ
Ningde am uaŋ ɛm im ɛŋ iŋ im em,
im 		ɛm
Hinghwa Xianyou aŋ ieŋ ɛŋ iŋ ieŋ
Southern Choanchew am uan iam ian in im ɯm
Changchew om
Teochew uaŋ iŋ im
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on an on an,
on 		an en on en en,
on 		en in on in
Kan-on an en in
Korean am əm jəm,
əm 		jəm,
am 		jəm,
əm 		jəm um im ɯm im am
Vietnamese am iəm əm

Groups 山 and 臻 (open)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 寒 山
刪 		仙 元
仙
先 		痕 欣 真
Division 一 二 三 三四 一 三 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 開 開 開
Initial K TS PTrSr K TrSy PTSK K K PK S TrSy
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔːn aːn iːn ɐn
Watlam ɔn iɛn in an
Taishan ɔn an en in
Hakka Moiyen ɔn an an,
ian 		an ian ɛn iun in ən
Gan Nanchang on an ɛn iɛn ɛn in in ən
Wu Kaihua oŋ ã iɛ̃ ɛ̃ ɛ̃,
iŋ 		iŋ iŋ,
yɛ̃
Wenzhou y,
ø 		a i aŋ iaŋ eŋ aŋ
Shanghai ø e e,
i 		ø i əɲ iɲ əɲ
Mandarin Lianshui æ̃ æ̃,
iaŋ 		iẽ,
æ̃ 		iẽ ən in ən
Wuhan an an,
iɛn 		an iɛn ən in ən
Beijing an iɛn an iɛn ən in ən
Min
 Northern Wuyishan uaiŋ uaiŋ,
aiŋ 		aiŋ iŋ aiŋ əŋ eiŋ
Jian'ou uiŋ uiŋ,
aiŋ 		aiŋ iŋ aiŋ eiŋ
Central Yong'an um ĩ ɛ̃i ĩ uã ã iã
Eastern Fuzhou aŋ ieŋ yŋ iŋ
Ningde aŋ iŋ,
ɛŋ 		yŋ iŋ,
eŋ
Hinghwa Xianyou aŋ ɛŋ ən yŋ iŋ
Southern Choanchew an iɛn ɯn in
Changchew in
Teochew aŋ ieŋ əŋ iŋ
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on an en en,
on 		on in,
on 		in
Kan-on an en on in
Korean an jən ɯn in,
ɯn 		in
Vietnamese an iən ən

Groups 山 and 臻 (closed)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 桓 刪
山 		仙 刪 元 仙 元
仙
先 		魂 文 淳 文
真
淳
Division 一 二 三 二 三 三 三四 一 三 三 三
Rounding 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合
Initial P T K K TrSrSy Sr F S K P T S K F TrSy S K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard uːn yːn uːn uaːn yːn aːn yːn uːn ɵn yːn uɐn ɐn ɵn uɐn
Watlam un yn un uɔn yn ɔn yn un yn uan an uan
Taishan ɔn an un an un ɔn un
Hakka Moiyen an ɔn uɔn uan ian ɔn an ian un iun
Gan Nanchang on uon uan on an yon ən un ən in
Wu Kaihua ɛ̃ uã yɛ̃ uã ã yɛ̃ ɛ̃ uɑ̃ ɛ̃ yŋ
Wenzhou ø y a y ø a y aŋ ø aŋ oŋ
Shanghai ø uø ue ø e yø əɲ uəɲ əɲ yɲ
Mandarin Lianshui õ uæ̃ õ uæ̃ æ̃ yẽ ən uən ən uən yn
Wuhan an uan an yɛn ən uən ən yn in yn
Beijing an uan an yɛn ən uən ən uən yn
Min
 Northern Wuyishan uaiŋ yiŋ uaiŋ yiŋ uiŋ əŋ
Jian'ou uiŋ yiŋ uiŋ uaiŋ yiŋ ɔŋ œyŋ
Central Yong'an um yɛ̃i,
ɛ̃i 		um ɛ̃i yɛ̃i uã
Eastern Fuzhou uaŋ uɔŋ uaŋ uɔŋ uoŋ uŋ
Ningde uoŋ uŋ uoŋ uŋ oŋ uŋ uŋ,
oŋ
Hinghwa Xianyou uoŋ yøŋ uoŋ yøŋ uoŋ
Southern Choanchew uan uan un
Changchew
Teochew uaŋ uaŋ uŋ
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on an wan wen en on en on,
wen 		on un,
on 		jun un,
in,
on
Kan-on an wan en an en wen on un jun un,
in
Korean an wan jən an ən,
an 		ən wən,
jən 		on,
un 		on un jun,
un
Vietnamese an wan wiən wan iən,
an 		wiən on ən uən

Groups 宕, 曾 and 深 (open)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 唐 陽 登 蒸 庚
耕 		庚
清
青 		庚
清
Division 一 三 一 三 二 三四 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 開 開 開
Initial PTSK Sr SK TrSy P TSK TrSy P K P TrSrK PTKS TrSy
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔːŋ œːŋ ɐŋ ɪŋ aːŋ ɪŋ,
ɛːŋ
Watlam uŋ a aŋ ɛŋ a ɛŋ
Taishan ɔŋ iaŋ aŋ en aŋ en,
iaŋ
Hakka Moiyen ɔŋ iɔŋ ɔŋ ɛn ən ɛn in aŋ in,
iaŋ 		ən,
aŋ
Gan Nanchang ɔŋ iɔŋ ɔŋ uŋ ɛn in uŋ aŋ in,
iaŋ 		ɛn,
aŋ
Wu Kaihua ã,
oŋ 		uã,
ioŋ 		iã əŋ iŋ ã iŋ əŋ iŋ
Wenzhou uɔ uɔ,
yɔ 		i oŋ aŋ eŋ iaŋ iɛ eŋ
Shanghai ɑ̃ iã ã əɲ iɲ ã iɲ əɲ
Mandarin Lianshui aŋ uaŋ iaŋ aŋ oŋ ən in oŋ ən in ən
Wuhan aŋ yaŋ iaŋ aŋ oŋ ən in oŋ ən in ən
Beijing aŋ uaŋ iaŋ aŋ əŋ iŋ əŋ iŋ əŋ
Min
 Northern Wuyishan oŋ yɔŋ aiŋ iŋ aiŋ iŋ aiŋ eiŋ,
iaŋ 		iŋ,
iaŋ
Jian'ou ɔŋ iɔŋ aiŋ eiŋ aiŋ iŋ aiŋ eiŋ,
iaŋ
Central Yong'an am iam ĩ iã ã ĩ ĩ,
ã
Eastern Fuzhou ouŋ uɔŋ eiŋ iŋ eiŋ iŋ,
iaŋ
Ningde ɔŋ yŋ ɛŋ eŋ iŋ eŋ ɛŋ eŋ,
iɛŋ
Hinghwa Xianyou ɒŋ yøŋ ɛŋ iŋ ɛŋ iŋ,
ɛŋ
Southern Choanchew aŋ,
ɔŋ 		ɔŋ iɔŋ iŋ ɯŋ iŋ,
in 		iŋ
Changchew iaŋ iŋ
Teochew aŋ uaŋ iaŋ eŋ
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on au jau,
au 		au jau ou jou jau
Kan-on au jau,
au 		jau ou jou au ei
Korean aŋ jaŋ uŋ ɯŋ ɯŋ,
iŋ 		iŋ ɯŋ ɛŋ jəŋ
Vietnamese aŋ ɨəŋ aŋ ɨŋ aŋ ajŋ ijŋ

Groups 宕, 曾, 深, 江 and 通 (closed)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 陽 唐 登
蒸 		耕 庚 清 庚
青 		江 東 東
冬 		東
鍾
Division 三 一 一三 二 二 三 三四 二 一 一 三
Rounding 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合
Initial F K K K K K K K Sr Tr P K P TSK F TrSy S K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔːŋ uɔːŋ uɐŋ uaːŋ ɪŋ wɪŋ œːŋ ɔːŋ uŋ
Watlam uŋ uoŋ ua uɛŋ uŋ aŋ ɔŋ
Taishan ɔŋ aŋ ien en ɔŋ əŋ
Hakka Moiyen ɔŋ ɛn ɛŋ uaŋ ɛn,
iun 		iuŋ uŋ ɔŋ uŋ iuŋ
Gan Nanchang ɔŋ uɔŋ ŋ uaŋ yŋ ɔŋ uŋ uŋ,
iuŋ
Wu Kaihua ã uã oŋ uɛ̃ yŋ ioŋ ã,
oŋ 		oŋ oŋ,
əŋ 		əŋ ioŋ oŋ oŋ,
ioŋ
Wenzhou uɔ yɔ uɔ oŋ iɛ ioŋ yɔ uɔ oŋ yɔ,
oŋ
Shanghai ɑ̃ uɑ̃ oŋ uɑ̃ ioŋ,
iɲ 		ioŋ ɑ̃ oŋ oŋ,
ioŋ
Mandarin Lianshui aŋ uaŋ oŋ ən in,
ioŋ 		uaŋ aŋ aŋ,
iaŋ 		oŋ ioŋ
Wuhan aŋ uaŋ oŋ uən yn,
ioŋ 		uaŋ aŋ aŋ,
iaŋ 		oŋ ioŋ
Beijing aŋ uaŋ uŋ əŋ iŋ,
yuŋ 		uaŋ aŋ iaŋ əŋ uŋ əŋ uŋ yuŋ
Min
 Northern Wuyishan oŋ yoŋ oŋ əŋ oŋ əŋ ɔŋ əŋ
Jian'ou ɔŋ uaŋ ɔŋ uaŋ eiŋ œyŋ ɔŋ œyŋ
Central Yong'an um iam um am um uã am iam am ã am
Eastern Fuzhou uɔŋ eiŋ uaŋ iŋ iŋ ouŋ auŋ ouŋ uŋ yŋ
Ningde ɔŋ ɛŋ uoŋ eŋ ɔŋ oŋ yŋ,
øŋ
Hinghwa Xianyou ɒŋ ɛŋ yŋ ɒŋ aŋ ɒŋ yøŋ
Southern Choanchew ɔŋ,
aŋ 		ɔŋ iŋ ɔŋ aŋ ɔŋ,
aŋ 		iɔŋ
Changchew
Teochew uaŋ,
aŋ 		uaŋ oŋ uaŋ ioŋ uaŋ aŋ oŋ,
aŋ 		oŋ ioŋ
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on au wau ou wau jau ou u u,
uu 		ju,
u,
juu,
uu 		u,
uu
Kan-on au jau wau ou wau ei au ou jou,
ou 		juu,
jou
Korean aŋ waŋ øŋ,
oŋ,
uŋ 		øŋ jəŋ aŋ oŋ uŋ,
oŋ 		juŋ,
uŋ,
oŋ,
joŋ
Vietnamese awŋ uəŋ waŋ wajŋ waŋ wijŋ awŋ aŋ əwŋ uwŋ,
awŋ 		uwŋ

Stop coda finals

[edit]

In Middle Chinese phonology, finals with the stop codas (-p, -k, -t) are classified as the entering tone equivalents of nasal coda finals (-m, -ŋ, -n). Many modern languages preserve this correspondence.

Japanese transforms the stop coda into a full mora: -k into -ku or -ki, -t into -tu or -ti, and -p into -fu (the latter may manifest as uː, oː, or iuː in modern Japanese).

Some languages, including most dialects of Mandarin, some varieties of Wu, as well as Inland Min, have lost the stop coda, and the stop coda finals became open-vowel finals in them.

Groups 咸 and 深

[edit]
Rhyme Class 盍 合 盍 狎
洽 		乏 葉 葉
帖 		業
葉
帖 		緝
Division 一 二 三 三 三四 三四 三
Rounding 開 開 合 開 開 開 開
Initial K TS TrSr K F TrSy TS K S K TrSy
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɐp aːp aːt iːp ɐp
Watlam ɔp ɔt iɛp ip ap
Taishan ap at iap ip
Hakka Moiyen ap iap ip əp
Gan Nanchang ot ot,
at 		at ɛt iɛt it ət
Wu Kaihua ʌʔ uʌʔ ʌʔ ʌʔ,
iɛʔ 		ʌʔ iɛʔ ieʔ ieʔ,
yɛʔ
Wenzhou y,
ø 		a,
ø 		a o i ai iai ai
Shanghai ɐʔ aʔ ɐʔ iɪʔ əʔ
Mandarin Lianshui oʔ æʔ æʔ,
iaʔ 		æʔ ieʔ əʔ
Wuhan o a ia,
a 		a ə iɛ i ɿ
Beijing ə a ia a ə iɛ i ɿ
Min
 Northern Wuyishan o a ua i ei i
Jian'ou ɔ a ua ie i
Central Yong'an ɯ ɒ uɒ iɛ ɛ i ɿ
Eastern Fuzhou aʔ uaʔ ieʔ iʔ eiʔ eiʔ
Ningde ap uak ɛp ip ep ɛp
Hinghwa Xianyou aʔ aʔ ɛʔ ieʔ iʔ
Southern Choanchew ap uat iap ip
Changchew
Teochew uak
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on afu ofu afu,
ofu 		afu efu ofu efu efu,
ofu 		ifu ofu ifu
Kan-on afu efu ifu
Korean ap əp jəp,
əp 		jəp,
ap 		jəp,
əp 		ip ɯp ip
Vietnamese ap iəp əp

Groups 山 and 臻 (open)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 曷 鎋
黠 		薛 月
薛
屑 		迄 質
Division 一 二 三 三四 三 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 開 開
Initial K TS PTrSr K TrSy PTSK K PK S TrSy
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard ɔːt aːt iːt ɐt
Watlam ɔt iɛt at
Taishan ɔt at et it
Hakka Moiyen ɔt at iat iut it ət
Gan Nanchang ot at ɛt iɛt it ət
Wu Kaihua ɔʔ ʌʔ ɔʔ iɛʔ ieʔ
Wenzhou y,
ø 		a i ai i ai
Shanghai ɐʔ aʔ ɐʔ iɪʔ ɐʔ
Mandarin Lianshui oʔ æʔ ieʔ iʔ əʔ
Wuhan o a a,
ia 		ɛ iɛ i ɿ
Beijing ə a ia ə iɛ i ɿ
Min
 Northern Wuyishan uai yai ai i əu ei
Jian'ou uɛ ai iɛ i
Central Yong'an uɒ uɒ,
ɒ 		ɒ a ya e i ɿ
Eastern Fuzhou aʔ ieʔ yʔ eiʔ
Ningde ak ik,
ɛk 		øk ik,
ek
Hinghwa Xianyou aʔ ɛʔ yʔ iʔ
Southern Choanchew at iɛt ɯt it
Changchew it
Teochew ak iek ək ik
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on ati eti eti,
oti 		oti iti,
oti 		iti
Kan-on atu etu itu
Korean al jəl ɯl il
Vietnamese at iət ət

Groups 山 and 臻 (closed)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 末 黠
鎋 		月 薛 月
薛
屑 		沒 物 術 物
質
術
Division 一 二 三 三 三四 一 三 三 三
Rounding 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合
Initial P T K K F TrSrSy S K P T S K F TrSy S K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard uːt yːt uːt uaːt aːt yːt uːt ɵt yːt uɐt ɐt ɵt uɐt
Watlam ut yt ut uɔt ɔt yt ut yt uat at uat
Taishan ɔt at ut ɔt ut
Hakka Moiyen at ɔt uɔt uat at iat ut iut
Gan Nanchang ot uot uat at ot yot ət ut ət it
Wu Kaihua ʌʔ ɔʔ uʌʔ ʌʔ yoʔ iɛʔ yɛʔ ʌʔ uʌʔ ʌʔ yeʔ
Wenzhou ø o y ø y ai y
Shanghai ɐʔ uɐʔ aʔ oʔ iɪʔ ioʔ ɐʔ uəʔ ɐʔ uoʔ ioʔ
Mandarin Lianshui oʔ uæʔ æʔ oʔ yeʔ ɔʔ əʔ ɔʔ uəʔ əʔ uəʔ iɔʔ yeʔ
Wuhan o ua a ye iɛ yɛ u ou u y i y
Beijing uo ua a uo yɛ uo u y
Min
 Northern Wuyishan uai ui uai y o ui y əu
Jian'ou uɛ ɔ ua uɛ yɛ ɔ u o y
Central Yong'an uɒ ye e ye ue yi
Eastern Fuzhou uaʔ uɔʔ uɔʔ,
yɔʔ 		uɔʔ ouʔ uɔʔ uʔ
Ningde uok uk ɔk,
yk 		uk ɔk uk
Hinghwa Xianyou uoʔ yøʔ uoʔ
Southern Choanchew uat uat,
ut 		uat uat,
ut 		uat uat,
iɛt 		ut
Changchew
Teochew uak uk uak uk uak uk
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on ati wati weti oti eti oti,
weti 		oti uti,
oti 		juti uti,
iti,
oti
Kan-on atu watu atu etu wetu otu utu jutu utu,
itu
Korean al wal əl,
al 		jəl wəl,
jəl 		ol,
al 		ol,
ul 		ol ul jul,
ul
Vietnamese at wat iət,
at 		wiət ot ət uət

Groups 宕, 曾 and 深 (open)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 藥 鐸 德 職 陌
麥 		陌
昔
錫 		昔
Division 三 一 一 三 二 三四 三
Rounding 開 開 開 開 開 開 開
Initial SK TrSy PTSK P TSK TrSy K P TrSrK PTKS TrSy
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard œːk ɔːk ɐk ɪk aːk ɪk,
ɛːk
Watlam a uk ak ɛk a ɛk
Taishan iak ɔk ak et ak et,
iak 		iak
Hakka Moiyen iɔk ɔk ɛt ət ak it,
iak 		ak
Gan Nanchang iɔʔ ɔʔ ɛʔ it aʔ it,
iaʔ 		aʔ
Wu Kaihua iɛʔ ɔʔ ʌʔ ieʔ ʌʔ ieʔ
Wenzhou ia a o ai e ei iai a ei
Shanghai iaʔ aʔ oʔ ɐʔ iɪʔ aʔ iɪʔ ɐʔ
Mandarin Lianshui iaʔ aʔ ɔʔ əʔ iʔ ɔʔ əʔ iʔ əʔ
Wuhan io o ə ɿ i ə i ɿ
Beijing lit ye uo uo,
ə 		uo ə ɿ i uo ə i ɿ
col iau au ei — ai ai,
iɛ 		—
Min
 Northern Wuyishan yo o ie i ie ei,
ia 		i,
ia
Jian'ou iɔ ɔ ɛ i ɛ i,
ia
Central Yong'an iɯ aɯ a ɿ i ɒ,
a 		i,
iɒ 		ɿ
Eastern Fuzhou uɔʔ ouʔ eiʔ aiʔ eiʔ eiʔ,
aiʔ 		eiʔ eiʔ
Ningde yk ɔk ɛk ek,
ik 		ɛk ek,
ik 		ek
Hinghwa Xianyou yøʔ ɒʔ ɛʔ iʔ ɛʔ iʔ,
ɛʔ 		iʔ
Southern Choanchew iɔk ak,
ɔk 		ik ɯk ik,
it 		ik
Changchew iak ik
Teochew ak ek
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on aku jaku aku oku iki oku jaku
Kan-on jaku aku oku joku aku eki
Korean jak ak uk ɯk ik ɯk ɛk jək
Vietnamese ɨək ak ɨk ak ajk ijk

Groups 宕, 曾, 深, 江 and 通 (closed)

[edit]
Rhyme Class 鐸 德
職 		麥 昔 覺 屋 屋
沃 		屋
燭
Division 一 一三 二 三 二 一 一 三
Rounding 合 合 合 合 合 合 合 合
Initial K K K K Sr Tr P K P TSK F TrSy S K
Chinese
 Cantonese Standard uɔːk uɐŋ ɪk œːk ɔːk uk
Watlam uk uok ua uɛk uk ak ɔk
Taishan ɔk ak et ɔk ək
Hakka Moiyen ɔk ɛt ak it ɔk uk iuk
Gan Nanchang ɔʔ uɛʔ uaʔ yʔ ɔʔ uʔ iuʔ
Wu Kaihua uʌʔ yeʔ iɔʔ ɔʔ ɔʔ,
əʔ 		əʔ yoʔ əʔ yoʔ
Wenzhou o ai o y yo o u əu,
u 		u əu yo,
iəu
Shanghai oʔ ioʔ,
yiʔ 		oʔ oʔ ioʔ
Mandarin Lianshui uaʔ ɔʔ ieʔ uaʔ aʔ aʔ,
iaʔ 		ɔʔ iɔʔ
Wuhan o uə y o o,
io 		u ou,
u 		u ou iou
Beijing lit uo i uo ye u y
col — au iau — iou —
Min
 Northern Wuyishan o ui ia o u əu
Jian'ou ua o i ɔ u y
Central Yong'an ɯ ue ɯ iɒ aɯ u u,
ɒu 		u y
Eastern Fuzhou uɔʔ eiʔ iʔ ouʔ auʔ ouʔ uʔ øyʔ,
yʔ
Ningde ɔk ɛk ik ɔk uk,
ok 		yk,
øk
Hinghwa Xianyou ɒʔ ɛʔ yʔ ɒʔ aʔ ɒʔ yøʔ
Southern Choanchew ɔk ik ɔk ak ɔk,
ak 		iɔk
Changchew
Teochew uak ok uak ok,
ak 		ok,
iok 		iok
Sino-Xenic
 Japanese Go-on waku oku jaku aku oku aku oku uku, oku iku, uku, oku
Kan-on waku oku waku eki aku oku uku,

joku

iku, juku, joku
Korean wak ok, uk øk jək ak ok juk, uk, ok, jok
Vietnamese wak wajk ijk ak əwk uwk

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The table uses the notation in Pulleyblank (1991), which differs in some ways from Pulleyblank (1984).

References

[edit]
Footnotes
  1. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 36–38.
  2. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 62–63.
  3. ^ Schuessler (2009), pp. 8–9.
  4. ^ Pan & Zhang (2015), pp. 86–87.
  5. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 75–79.
  6. ^ Branner (2006), p. 24.
  7. ^ Branner (2006), p. 25.
  8. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 63–81.
Works cited
  • Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
  • ——; Sagart, Laurent (20 February 2010), Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, Version 1.00.
  • Branner, David Prager (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8. See also List of Corrigenda.
  • Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese Towards a New Paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, doi:10.1163/1568532042523149, JSTOR 4528958.
  • Chan, Lam-yit (2013). 泉厦方言音韵比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Phonology of Dialects in the Ancient Prefecture of Quanzhou] (Thesis). Peking University.{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Chen, Matthew; Newman, John (1984), From Middle Chinese to Modern Cantonese, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
  • Ding, Zhimin 丁治民 (2017), 瓯语语音史研究 [A Study on the Phonological History of Wenzhounese], 苏州大学出版社, ISBN 9787567222496.
  • Akitani, Hiroyuki (2010), 闽东区福宁片四县市方言音韵研究 [A Study on the Rhymes in Four Dialects of the Ningde Division of Eastern Min], 福建人民出版社, ISBN 978-7-2110-6148-8.
  • Akitani, Hiroyuki (2018). 閩東區寧德方言音韻史研究 [A Study on the Phonological History of the Nindge dialect of Eastern Min] (Thesis). Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Karlgren, Bernhard (1957), Grammata Serica Recensa, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, OCLC 1999753.
  • Li, Fang-Kuei (1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287.
  • Lim, Lunlun 林伦伦 (2015), 潮汕方言历时研究 [A Study on the History of the Teo-Swa Dialects], 暨南大学出版社, ISBN 978-7-5668-1549-1.
  • Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-543-5.
  • Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
  • Pan, Wuyun; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Chapter 6: Middle Chinese Phonology and Qieyun", in Wang, William S-Y; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1998-5633-6.
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1962), "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Major, 9: 58–144, 206–265.
  • —— (1970), "Late Middle Chinese, Part I" (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239.
  • —— (1971), "Late Middle Chinese, Part II" (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.
  • —— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.
  • —— (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0366-3.
  • Schuessler, Axel (2009), Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3264-3.
  • Tan, Phekka 陈碧加 (2001), 闽南方言：漳州话研究 [Southern Min: Zhangzhaou dialect research], 漳州师范学院, ISBN 7-5059-3431-7.
  • Yue Hashimoto, Oi-kan (1972), Studies in Yue Dialects 1: Phonology of Cantonese, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0.
  • Zhan, Bohui 詹伯慧 (2002), 广东粤方言概要 [An Outline of the Cantonese dialects of Guangdong], 暨南大学出版社, ISBN 978-7-8107-9062-8.
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