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List of cases of police brutality in Belize

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This is a list of cases of police brutality in Belize since the 2000s. This list includes non-fatal cases of excessive or unwarranted use of force by military or non-military law enforcement officers, whether proven or merely alleged. This list does not include fatal cases.[n 1]

2020s

[edit]
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
Date Name (age) District (place) Description Ruling Nb
Apr 2022 Shamar Foster ? Foster, a tour guide and student, was physically abused by police constable Albert Martinez and police corporal Linda Chan at a local airport. Foster claimed Martinez accosted him for being a young black man who did not 'look like a tour guide,' slapped him in the face, threatened to use his firearm, and accused Foster of assaulting an officer. Witnesses claimed Martinez smelled strongly of alcohol. Martinez and Chan disciplined [1]
Mar 2022 Cherisse Halsall ? Halsall, a 7 News reporter, was forcibly removed by police officers from the CARICOM–SICA Summit, per the Press Office director's instructions. 7 News called the incident 'a flagrant and foul muzzling of the free press.' ? [n 2]
Jul 2021 one man ? Amateur video showed police officers Wilton Montero and Jerome Ingram abusing an unarmed man who was in handcuffs and appeared unconscious. Montero and Ingram disciplined and charged; trial outcome not clear [2]
May 2021 Vejea Alvarez Orange Walk (Orange Walk) Alvarez, a Love FM radio reporter, was assaulted and falsely detained and charged by police sergeant Evaristo Cobb while covering a protest by nurses at Northern Regional Hospital. Cobb threatened to beat Alvarez if he did not exit the hospital, punched him in the chest, detained him at the police station, and again threatened Alvarez when he complained. Cobb disciplined [n 3]
Feb 2021 various inmates Belize (Hattieville) Amateur video showed corrections officers at Central Prison pepper spraying handcuffed inmates directly in the face, forcing an inmate to ingest large quantities of water until they vomited, and a paralysed inmate suffering from bedsores. The prison governor told press 'the mistreatment featured in the video did not occur at the prison.' The HRC called the appointment of visiting justices to the Prison as mandated by law. ? [3]
Jan 2021 one teen (19) Cayo (Succotz) A 19 year old woman reported that police constable Edgar Teul sexually assaulted her thrice while she waited to sign bail documents at the police station for the release of her common law husband. Teul dismissed and charged; trial outcome not clear [4]
Apr 2020 two people ? A man and a woman with mental disabilities were allegedly forced into a sexual act by three police officers, who then filmed the act and released it to the public. Three officers charged; trial outcome not clear [5]
Jan 2020 one man ? A man claimed police officers scalded him with hot water and pulled out his hair when he was picked up to be questioned about a stolen mobile phone ? [n 4]

2010s

[edit]
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
Date Name (age) District (place) Description Ruling Nb
1 Jan 2019 Jamir Leal, various people ? Police officer Tyrell Rowley allegedly used excessive force to disperse a group fight. Footage showed Rowley kicking an unconscious Jamir Leal on the ground. Rowley charged; not convicted [6]
Jul 2018 two minors ? Two male minors were allegedly severely beaten by police officers after being detained (for allegedly stealing two guns from a security firm) and handcuffed. Investigative outcome not clear [7]
Nov 2017 two women Belize (Belize) A Belizean and a Salvadoran woman accused three police officers of raping them in a police station after they were removed from a transit bus to be searched for drugs. Investigative outcome not clear [n 5]
Sep 2017 one journalist Orange Walk (?) A journalist was physically assaulted by a police officer while covering a political event. Upon reporting the incident, the Minister of Home Affairs stated, 'The Police Department have a job to do, and in that situation, we have always asked the media to stay a distance away from the situation.' Investigative outcome not clear [8]
May 2017 three journalists Cayo (Belmopan) Two members of the press were physically assaulted (and a third threatened) by a Serjeant at Arms while covering a protest in Parliament. Serjeant suspended [n 6]
Apr 2017 four people Belize (San Pedro) As two women were being detained by two police officers, civilians gathered to demand they minimise their allegedly excessive use of force, whereupon officers physically attacked a bystander recording the event as well as his brother. One of the men was shot in the legs when the officers fired warning shots into the air and ground. Two officers charged; trial outcome not clear [9]
Aug 2016 various journalists, one MP Cayo (Belmopan) A number of journalists and a member of the Opposition were forcibly pushed out of Parliament building by police officers, allegedly per the Speaker's intructions. Concerns about such treatment were raised. ? [10]
Aug 2016 two men Belize (Belize) Two brothers claimed GSU police officers shot and wounded them both in the leg while in detention following a gang raid. Investigative outcome not clear [11]
May 2016 one girl ? A girl alleged police officer Mark Flowers (head of GSU) had sexually assaulted her. Flowers charged; not convicted [12]
Feb 2016 one girl (8) ? An 8 year old girl alleged police officer Darren Martinez had sexually assaulted her. Martinez convicted [12]
2016 one man Toledo (?) A man claimed police officers beat him when he sought to intervene in the beating of a second person by said officers. The man alleged he was left on the roadside, where he was found the following day suffering from internal injuries. His family claimed the Police Department's internal affairs delayed in dealing with the matter when they reported it. Investigative outcome not clear [13]
Aug 2015 three fishermen Belize (Belize) Three fishermen went missing while at sea. Family claimed coast guards were involved due to antagonistic previous encounters. Investigative outcome not clear [n 7]
Jun 2015 one person ? A resident claimed a police special constable beat him while detaining him, leaving him with several injuries (including two large cuts to the head). Constable suspended and charged; not convicted [n 8]
Aug 2014 various youths ? Youths at a six-week summer camp at a BDF military base were allegedly disciplined with excessive force by camp personnel. The BDF justified the force used as necessary to control the youths who had allegedly launched a gang war. ? [14]
Jun 2014 one teen (19) Cayo (Unitedville) A teenager was allegedly shot and wounded by four police officers. Four officers charged; trial outcome not clear [15]
27 May 2013 one man ? A man claimed GSU police officers beat him in his home after entering and searching it without a warrant, and claimed officers 'told him that had he been alone, they would have killed him.' ? [16]
Jan 2013 one guide Belize (Caye Caulker) A tour guide was allegedly severely beaten (requiring brain surgery) by tourism police officers, who then reportedly forced tourists who had recorded the act to destroy the footage. Investigative outcome not clear [17]
Dec 2012 four people Belize (San Pedro) Four people were physically assaulted in a bar by two off duty police officers after one of the latter was confronted for making unwanted advances. The altercation continued outside the bar, where three of the four were arrested and charged. One officer suspended; investigative outcome not clear [18]
Feb 2012 one man ? A man alleged police officers beat him after apprehension in connection with a 2011 shooting of a police officer. ? [n 9]
Jan 2012 one woman Toledo (Jalacte) A Honduran national claimed she was raped by one police officer and four BDF soldiers while crossing the border from Santa Cruz, Peten. Investigative outcome not clear [n 10]
Aug 2011 Glenn Tillett Cayo (Belmopan) Tillett claimed he was wrongfully detained for a prolonged period, denied needed medical care, then released sans charge by police officers, in connection with a robbery allegedly committed by a relative at a foreign embassy. ? [19]
29 Aug 2011 various bystanders ? Attendees at the funeral of a murder victim who allegedly had had gang ties were reportedly injured with pepper spray, rubber bullets, and a baseball bat by GSU police officers. ? [20]
May 2010 Elvin Torres Belize (Western Hwy) Torres, an electrical mechanic, was allegedly wounded by six police constables at a checkpoint on Mile Four. They reportedly believed Torres had fired shots as he drove past. Six constables charged; charges against four dropped; two acquitted [n 11]
Apr 2010 one man Belize (Belize) A man in a vehicle was shot in the head and wounded (partially paralysed) by police inspector Dennis Lopez. The latter claimed he fired by accident, contrary to eyewitness accounts. Lopez charged; not convicted [n 12]
Mar 2010 one fisherman Stann Creek (Dangriga) A fisherman was shot in the back by a police officer. The latter claimed the former resisted arrest, but witnesses claimed the fisherman was fleeing when shot. Internal affairs recommend charges; no charges filed [21]
Mar 2010 one vendor Belize (San Pedro) A vegetable vendor allegedly kidnapped, assaulted, had his boat searched, and was robbed of $350 by a police officer and a soldier. Soldier cleared; officer charged; not convicted [n 13]

2000s

[edit]
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
Date Name (age) District (place) Description Ruling Nb
Dec 2009 one boy (14) ? A teenager claimed he was beaten and sexually assaulted while in police custody. Investigative outcome not clear [22]
Nov 2009 one person ? An individual was allegedly sexually assaulted by a police corporal on duty. Corporal charged; charges dropped [23]
Aug 2009 one minor ? A youth claimed he was taken to a burglary crime scene and beaten by a police officer before being charged for the burglary. Investigative outcome not clear [24]
Jul 2009 one minor ? A youth alleged two police officers detained him, drove him to a highway, and used excessive force on him (including beatings and a gunshot to the head). ? [25]
Feb 2009 one man Belize (Belize) A man alleged three police officers attacked him and left him bleeding on the street with injuries that required hospitalisation. ? [n 14]
2008 one man ? A man was shot and wounded in the back of the head by a police constable. Constable charged; not convicted [12]
May 2008 one person Sann Creek (Dangriga) A hospital patient was beaten with a shotgun by a police officer. Officer charged; not convicted [n 15]
Mar 2008 one woman Orange Walk (?) A woman was allegedly detained outside her home and beaten by two police officers, requiring hospitalisation for cuts and bruises to her neck and hands. One officer found guilty, transferred, fined [n 16]
Feb 2008 one girl (14) Cayo (San Ignacio) A teenager reported she was extorted and raped by a police corporal. Corporal arrested and charged; not convicted [n 17]
Dec 2007 one man Belize (San Pedro) A man claimed police officers detained him after planting cannabis in his home, then beat him with batons and rubber hoses, and pepper sprayed him. Tribunal convicts and fines two officers, acquits three [26]
Sep 2007 one girl (14) Stann Creek (Dangriga) A teenager alleged she was raped by a police constable. Constable convicted; reversed on appeal [27]
17 Sep 2007 one person ? A man claimed a police corporal used excessive force against him while in custody. Corporal charged; case dismissed [n 18]
Aug 2007 two people Belize (Ladyville) A man claimed police officers tied a rope around his waist and threw him into sea to torture him to obtain information on a recent theft of the Home Affairs Minister's computers. Similarly, a mother claimed officers beat her son in a bid to obtain information on the same. Investigation closed on lack of evidence [28]
May 2007 1000s protestors Cayo (Belmopan) Police officers used tear gas and rubber bullets on thousands of demonstrators gathered to protest a government guarantee of a firm's private debt. The crowd had allegedly thrown rocks and other items at police. ? [n 19]
5 Nov 2006 Goldburn Miller, Elbert Anderson, Ashton Myers ? Miller, Anderson, and Myers (siblings) were allegedly beaten in their home by police officers (including constable Dennison Longsworth) with batons, giving the first a broken arm, and the second seizures which required hospitalisation. Officers detained and charged the brothers with obstruction. Longsworth internally charged; tribunal dismisses case [n 20]
19 Sep 2006 Justin Stuart ? Stuart was allegedly beaten by police officers until his ears bled, then tortured with a plastic bag over his head (tightened around his neck), and kicked repeatedly in the stomach. Internal investigation dropped [n 21]
23 Aug 2006 Elario Elijio (61) ? Elijio was beaten by police officers when he tried to intervene in his son's arrest. Investigation clears officers [29]
Feb 2006 Lisa Lauriano, Bernadine Reid Belize (Hattieville) Lauriano and Reid were allegedly tortured with stun guns by nine corrections officers. Investigative findings differed; no action taken [n 22]
Jul 2005 John Faux, Frans Faux, one man Stann Creek (Dangriga) A father and his two sons were allegedly beaten and tortured via electric shock by police officers while detained without charge on suspicion of withholding evidence regarding a bank robbery. Case settled; no disciplinary action [n 23]
20 Jan 2005 Mark Butler, other people Belize (Hattieville) Members of the Energy Workers' Union, including president Butler, were detained by police officers while en route to a demonstration, allegedly for having harmful tools in the vehicle. They were released the same day only when the Leader of the Opposition phoned the police commissioner. ? [30]
14 Sep 2004 Emile Pinelo ? While arresting him and later at the station, Pinelo was allegedly choked, punched, repeatedly kicked, and beaten by police constables Clayton Marin and Cyril Wade. Pinelo was initially denied medical care, but eventually taken to hospital. Pinelo 'suffered massive internal injuries and required emergency surgery to remove 25 inches of his small intestine.' Marin and Wade suspended and charged; Marin's charges dismissed; Wade convicted, 5 years' prison [n 24]
30 Mar 2004 Pedro Guzman Cayo (San Ignacio) Guzman was forced into a car at gunpoint by an inebriated police constable Julio Shal, who then threatened him with it, eventually shooting Guzman in the hand. Shal arrested and charged; charges dismissed [n 25]
Dec 2003 one woman ? A woman reported police constable Adrian Lopez arrested her for a traffic violation, drove her to a deserted airfield, and tried to rape here before she escaped. Lopez arrested and charged; trial outcome not clear [n 26]
24 Aug 2003 Timotheo Cano, Lincoln Cardinez Stann Creek (Dangriga) Cano and Cardinez were allegedly illegally detained by police superintendent Ewart Itza (and subordinate officers), who then pistol-whipped Cano and beat Cardinez, denied them medical care, detained them overnight, and released them sans charges the next morning. Itza suspended and charged; not convicted [n 27]
Jan 2003 Antoinette Moore, Michael Flores Stann Creek (Dangriga) Moore (human rights lawyer) and Flores (radio journalist) were arrested and charged with drug-related offences by police officers. Concerns were raised that the charges may have been meant to intimidate them for protesting police brutality. ? [n 28]
Dec 2002 one person Belize (Hattieville) An escapee from Central prison, injured while being recaptured, was beaten in hospital (per witnesses) by corrections officers George Myvett and Joshua Trapp. Myvett and Trapp dismissed [31]
27 Sep 2002 three men Toledo (Otoxha) Three villagers were shot and wounded in a confrontation with two police officers, while the latter (with two forestry officers) tried to confiscate illegally logged mahogany. The machete-wielding villagers allegedly formed a mob of 30 which advanced on the officers. Inquiry clears officers [n 29]
8 Sep 2002 two men Belize (Belize) Two men were kidnapped and turned over to a suspected drug gang by police constable Martin Castillo and two soldiers on patrol. Castillo and the soldiers were arrested while en route to abduct a third person. Castillo charged; not convicted [n 30]
27 May 2002 ca 16 inmates Belize (Hattieville) Four inmates were shot and severely injured by corrections officers at Central Prison for a failed escape attempt, requiring hospitalisation. Officers reportedly beat them with rifles and batons, kicked and punched them, then (officer Ean Daley) methodically shot each at close range with a pistol, then again beat them. '[A] dozen other prisoners were severely beaten by guards' at the Prison on 28–29 May, per human rights groups. Daley dismissed; no officer charged [n 31]
24 Apr 2002 Marcos Sanchez (15), Marlon Gamez (24), 100s protestors Cayo (Benque Viejo) During a protest against increased bus fares (200–300 people, including at least 60 schoolchildren), Sanchez and Gamez were shot and injured by police corporal Thomas Flores, with an M16 rifle at close range. Police reportedly used excessive force, sprayed tear gas indiscriminately, made arbirtrary arrests, and beat some detainees. Internal investigation finds use of force excessive; no officer charged [n 32]
5 Mar 2002 two people Belize (Belize) The owner of a store and a customer were assaulted by four police officers on patrol as they robbed the store. Four officers arrested and charged; trial outcome not clear [32]
4 Sep 2001 Frederick Arzu, John Elijio Belize (Hattieville) Arzu and Elijio were lashed four times each with a tamarind whip by corrections officers at Central Prison for escaping. None [n 33]
30 Jul 2001 two protestors ? During a protest blocking a north-south highway, responding police officers and soldiers shot and wounded two protestors, allegedly after some personnel were injured by rocks and bottles. One soldier suspended; commission of inquiry appointed; inquiry outcome not clear [n 34]
23 Jul 2001 Francis Westby (17) ? Westby was allegedly beaten by police officers who were arresting him, including (per a witness) hitting him several times, pushing his head under water, and beating him while escorting him to their vehicle. Investigative outcome not clear [33]
28 Aug 2000 one inmate Belize (Hattieville) An inmate was given 12 lashes by corrections officers at Central Prison for stabbing a fellow inmate over $4. None [n 35]
27 Aug 2000 Charlie Slusher, Norman Nunez Orange Walk (Orange Walk) Slusher and Nunez (on the national football team) were allegedly beaten while handcuffed by police officers while en route to a party. Three constables charged with wounding; trial outcome not clear [n 36]
Jul 2000 Randolph Miller Belize (Hattieville) Miller was allegedly beaten (hand broken) by corrections officers after escaping from Central Prison. Investigative outcome not clear [34]
20 May 2000 one man ? A man (who had brandished a dead snake glued to cardboard) was shot and injured by a police officer on duty at the national agriculture and trade show, despite an order to not shoot. Officer suspended; investigative outcome not clear [35]
4 Apr 2000 Darrel Jones Belize (Hattieville) Jones was shot by a police officer after escaping Central Prison. Officer cleared [36]
17 Mar 2000 three inmates Belize (Hattieville) During a riot of 300–400 inmates protesting the Smith and Elijio floggings, three inmates were shot and wounded by corrections officers at Central Prison, requiring hospitalisation. Forwarded to DPP; outcome not clear [n 37]
16 Mar 2000 Nehru Smith, Bert Elijio Belize (Hattieville) Smith and Elijio were flogged twelve and six times, respectively, with a tamarind whip by corrections officers at Central Prison, both for allegedly stabbing fellow inmates. None [n 38]
14 Feb 2000 two people Orange Walk (Orange Walk) A BDF soldier and a bystander were shot and injured by a police officer. The soldier and officer were reportedly in a verbal altercation when the former pulled a machete. Officer suspended; investigative outcome not clear [37]

See also

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Notes and references

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Notes

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  1. ^ S 22.
  2. ^ S 21.
  3. ^ S 21.
  4. ^ S 21.
  5. ^ S 20.
  6. ^ S 19; Pham.
  7. ^ S 18.
  8. ^ S 17.
  9. ^ S 17.
  10. ^ S 16.
  11. ^ S 16.
  12. ^ a b c Pham.
  13. ^ S 16.
  14. ^ S 14.
  15. ^ S 14.
  16. ^ S 13.
  17. ^ S 13.
  18. ^ S 12.
  19. ^ S 11.
  20. ^ S 11.
  21. ^ S 10.
  22. ^ S 09.
  23. ^ S 09; S 10.
  24. ^ S 09.
  25. ^ S 09.
  26. ^ S 08.
  27. ^ S 08; S 09; Pham.
  28. ^ S 07.
  29. ^ S 06; S 07.
  30. ^ S 05.
  31. ^ S 02.
  32. ^ S 02.
  33. ^ A 02.
  34. ^ A 01.
  35. ^ S 00.
  36. ^ S 00.
  37. ^ S 00.
  1. ^ In Belize, military officers sometimes act in a domestic law enforcement capacity. See List of killings by law enforcement officers in Belize for fatal cases of police brutality. Complete lists of cases of police brutality in Belize are not officially published, so this list relies on media and unofficial reports. Notes and short citations provided in Nb columns. Short citations in the form A yy refer to AI, yyyy report, sec Belize. Short citations in the form S yy refer to State, report for yyyy, sec Belize, subsec 1–2.
  2. ^ S 22. Other local media organisations (except News 5) were likewise denied certain access while covering the summit (S 22).
  3. ^ S 21. Corporal Gaspar Tuz and constable Walter Leonardo also disciplined (S 21).
  4. ^ S 20. 'There was no response on the part of the BPD' (S 20).
  5. ^ S 17. Officers remained on active duty despite ongoing investigation (S 17).
  6. ^ S 17. Serjeant eventually suspended, but not immediately censured (S 17).
  7. ^ S 15. Police investigation led to detention of three coast guards in 2016 (S 16).
  8. ^ S 15; Pham. An officer who witnessed but did not stop the beating was internally disciplined (S 15).
  9. ^ S 12. No complaint filed with internal affairs nor ombudsman by end 2012, despite former reaching out to individual (S 12).
  10. ^ S 12. Case complicated by complainant leaving country and potentially not returning for trial (S 12).
  11. ^ S 10; Pham. Constables were Kareem Fuller, Fernando Franzua, Tyrone Baizar, Mark Martinez, Glennwayne Grant, Henry Nunez (Pham).
  12. ^ S 10; Pham. Victim filed civil suit by 2011 (S 11).
  13. ^ S 10; Pham. Soldier cleared by BDF 'because he reportedly remained on the wharf where the vessel was moored and did not assist his confederate on the boat' (S 10).
  14. ^ S 09. Man indicated he would file case with police's internal affairs, but latter reported no such case by end 2009 (S 09).
  15. ^ S 08; Pham. Supervising officer demoted and fined (S 08).
  16. ^ S 08. Second officer not investigated (S 08).
  17. ^ S 08; Pham. Constable not corporal in Pham.
  18. ^ S 07; S 08. Dismissed for lack of evidence (S 08).
  19. ^ S 07. No serious injuries and several arrests of protestors reported (S 07).
  20. ^ S 06; S 08. Dismissed for lack of evidence (S 08).
  21. ^ S 06; S 07. Dropped in 2007 after authorities could not locate two key witnesses (S 07).
  22. ^ S 06. Internal investigation found 'the two inmates had a history of unruly behaviour and assault and often had to be physically restrained to prevent them from harming others;' but Ombudsman found use of force excessive and recommended officers be punished (S 06).
  23. ^ A 06; S 05; S 08. Fauxes settled with Solicitor General, were compensated (S 08). An accused officer was promoted after case was filed, and later involved in another instance of misconduct (S 08).
  24. ^ S 04; Pham. Charges against Marin dropped in 2005 (S 05). Court of Appeals reaffirmed Wade's conviction in October 2006 (S 06).
  25. ^ S 04; Pham. Charges dismissed on 17 July 2006 after Guzman refused to testify (S 06).
  26. ^ S 03. In 2004, DPP 'had no record of charges against police constable Adrian Lopez' (S 04).
  27. ^ A 04; S 03; Pham. Itza acquitted in 2004, but prosecutors appealed; appeal outcome not clear as of end of 2006 (S 04; S 05; S 06).
  28. ^ A 04. Granted bail; due in court in January 2004 (A 04).
  29. ^ A 03; S 02. Plus two villagers shot and killed (A 03). Dated October 2002 in A 03.
  30. ^ S 02; Pham. Soldiers' charges dropped after they explained they thought they were conducting legitimate police business (S 02).
  31. ^ A 03; S 02. Daley had been suspended in 2000 for beating and shooting an inmate; Ombudsman urged Daley be criminally charged (S 02).
  32. ^ A 03; S 02. Many officers present not trained in crowd control; government stated 'the confrontational attitude adopted by some demonstrators led to the injuries to both police officers and civilians' (A 03). Use of force excessive by 'several officers;' '[s]everal protesters' charged, but cases postponed indefinitely (S 02).
  33. ^ A 02. Corporal punishment reinstituted in prisons in February 2000 (A 02).
  34. ^ S 01. Rocks and bottles allegedly hurled after tear gas was used on protestors (S 01).
  35. ^ S 00. In accordance with prison rules, after sentencing by a visiting judge, despite prison governor's 31 March disavowal of floggings (S 00).
  36. ^ A 01; S 00; S 01. District inspector James Magdaleno, assistant inspector Eli Salazar suspended; constables Roger Briceno, Mateo Carrillo, A Coc disciplined (S 00). Magdaleno reinstated; Salazar discharged for a separate case of alleged torture; Briceno, Carrillo, Coc charged (S 01).
  37. ^ S 00. Plus one inmate fatally shot (S 00).
  38. ^ A 01; S 00; S 01. After sentencing by a visiting judge (S 01). Corporal punishment reinstituted in prisons in February 2000, but 'used retrospectively as a punishment for crimes committed before it was introduced' (A 01). Minister of Prisons voiced support for and approval of the floggings (S 00). The newly reappointed prison governor stated on 31 March that floggings were necessary but would be dispensed with during his governorship (S 00).

References

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  1. Amnesty Intl (1962–2025). Amnesty International Report (Annual NGO report). London: Amnesty Intl.
  2. Pham D, Pham G, Pham P, Sikkink K, Thoms OT, Vinck P (30 April 2024). "Belize". TJET Database of Transitional Justice Mechanisms, 1970–2020 (Scholarly database). Toronto: Transitional Justice Evaluation Team.
  3. US State Dept (1977–2025). Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (Annual statutory report). Washington, DC: GPO. HathiTrust 000062477. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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