Kadazan people

Not to be confused with Kedayan or Kendayan people.

Kadazan

A Kadazan man and a Kadazan woman in traditional costume during Kaamatan celebration
Regions with significant populations
Malaysia (Sabah, Labuan)
Languages
Kadazan, Sabah Malay, Standard Malay, English
Religion
Christianity (majority), Islam, Momolianism
Related ethnic groups
Kadazan-Dusun, Sino-Kadazan, Dusun, Austronesian peoples

The Kadazan are an ethnic group indigenous to the state of Sabah in Malaysia. They are found mainly in Penampang and Papar on the west coast of Sabah, the surrounding areas, and various locations in the interior.

As a result of integration in culture and language, as well as for political initiatives, the new term "Kadazan-Dusun" was created to combine Kadazan and Dusun as one group. Together, they are the largest ethnic group in Sabah. The Kadazan-Dusun have been recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004.

Origins of the term "Kadazan"

An extensive research was carried out by Gundohing Richard Francis Tunggolou titled "The Origins and Meanings of the Terms 'Kadazan' and 'Dusun'". The article explains on the origins of the Kadazan term in detail.

It is believed that there is evidence to suggest that the term has been used long before the 1950s. The Bobolian or Bobohizan of Borneo were interviewed to seek a better picture of the true meaning of the term "Kadazan". According to a Lotud Dusun Tantagas, Tantagas Odun Badin, the term "Kadazan" means "the people of the land". A Kadazan Bobohizan from Penampang, Gundohing Dousia Moujing, gave a similar meaning of "Kadazan" and reiterated that the term has always been used to refer to "the people of the land".

Over a hundred years ago, the Kadazan were ruled by the Sultanate of Brunei. The Kadazan, or Kadayan in the Dusun dialect, were officially referred to by the sultanate as the orang dusun, a noun phrase which literally means "people of the orchard" in Malay. Administratively, the Kadazan were called "orang dusun" by the sultanate, or specifically the tax collector, but, in reality, the orang dusun were Kadazan. An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in 1881. Owen Rutter wrote in 1927 that the native people residing in Papar preferred to call themselves "Kadazan". Administratively, all Kadazan were categorised as Dusun. It was only through the establishment of the KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association) in 1960 that this terminology was corrected and replaced by "Kadazan". When Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore and Malaya formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, all Dusun born since then were administratively referred to as Kadazan.

Initially, there was no dispute with regard to "Kadazan" as the identifying name of the Dusun between 1963 and 1984. In 1985, through the KDCA (formally known as KCA), the term "Dusun" was reintroduced after much pressure from various parties desiring a division between the Kadazan and the Dusun once again. This was largely successful and served a precursor to the fall of the ruling political state party Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS). PBS, through the KCA, then coined the new term "Kadazan-Dusun" to represent both the Dusun and the Kadazan. Today, both Singapore and Malaysia acknowledge the ethnic group as Kadazan-Dusun, the political name.

Origins

"Out of Taiwan" theory

Theoretical Y-DNA haplogroup (patrilineal DNA) migration map

The Kadazan people, an indigenous ethnic group primarily found in Sabah, Malaysia, are believed to have origins linked to the Austronesian migration known as the Out-of-Taiwan theory. According to this theory, the ancestors of the Kadazan were among the early Austronesian-speaking peoples who migrated from Taiwan thousands of years ago. These migrants, often referred to as the Taiwanese aborigines, gradually spread southward across the Philippines and into Borneo.

Linguistic, genetic, and cultural evidence supports this connection, indicating that the Kadazan share common roots with the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, such as the Paiwan and the Bunun. Over time, these ancestral groups adapted to the local environments of Borneo, giving rise to the distinct cultural identity of the present-day Kadazan community.

A study has stated, "Over the next thousand years to 1500 BC, the Austronesians spread south through the Philippines to the Celebes, the Moluccas, northern Borneo and eastern Java. One branch went east from the Moluccan Island of Halmahera about 1600 BC to colonize eastern Melanesia (1200 BC) and Micronesia (500 BC). The migration continued well into Polynesia by 1 AD, and reached Hawaii and Easter Island by the year 500. The Austronesians finally reached the last uninhabited land on earth, New Zealand, sometime around 1300."

In conclusion, the origins of the Kadazan people are closely tied to the broader Austronesian migration from Taiwan, as outlined in the Out-of-Taiwan theory. This theory is supported by linguistic, cultural, and genetic links between the Kadazan and indigenous Taiwanese groups such as the Paiwan and the Bunun. The gradual southward expansion of Austronesian-speaking peoples over thousands of years, including their settlement in northern Borneo, laid the foundation for the development of distinct indigenous communities like the Kadazan. As these early migrants adapted to their new environment, they formed a unique cultural identity that continues to thrive in Sabah today.

Culture

Rice as a staple food

Kadazan culture is heavily influenced by the farming of rice, culminating in various delicacies and alcoholic drinks prepared through differing home-brewed fermentation processes. Rice is not only the primary staple in everyday meals but also holds deep symbolic value, representing life, prosperity and the spirit of Bambaazon. Its harvest is celebrated through the major festival, Kaamatan, which honors the paddy spirit and gives thanks for abundance. The prominence of rice in both cuisine and ritual reflects its profound impact on Kadazan identity, tradition, and social cohesion.

The festival of Kaamatan

The most important festival of the Kadazan is the Kaamatan, or harvest festival, where the spirit of the paddy is honoured after a year's harvest. This takes place in May, and the two last days of the month are public holidays throughout Sabah. During the festival, the most celebrated event is the crowning of the Unduk Ngadau, the harvest festival beauty queen. Young women of Kadazan, Dusun, Murut and Rungus descent from several districts compete for this title. The beauty pageant is held to commemorate the spirit of Huminodun, a mythological character of unparalleled beauty who is said to have given her life in exchange for a bountiful harvest for her people.

Traditional attire

Traditional Kadazan attire holds deep cultural significance, serving as a visual representation of status, identity and ceremonial function. The elegance and structure of the garments reflect not only indigenous values but also historical influences, particularly from the Bruneians, the Iranun, the Maranao and the British. These influences are evident in the use of velvet-like black fabric, gold trimming and accessories that are of foreign origin. The Penampang Kadazan and Papar Kadazan garments are different from each other, each incorporating unique tailoring, motifs and textiles that reflect local identity while preserving shared heritage.

The Kadazan of Penampang traditionally wear a two-piece gown known as the Sinuangga' Do Binongkoh, a striking black velvet blouse and skirt ensemble for women, adorned with gold trimming, and it is accompanied by three silver British Trade Dollar coin belts (himpogot), three brass girdles (tangkong) and modern women's accessories. The tangkong are prised heirlooms, often inherited through generations, and are considered valuable cultural assets. Aged tangkong are especially sought after, regarded as antique items that can fetch up to RM8,000 due to their rarity and craftsmanship, whereas newer ones are generally more affordable. Beyond their monetary value, the tangkong are believed to act as talismans, offering spiritual protection to the wearer during rituals and public appearances. The ensemble is further embellished with ornamental gold-coloured buttons, or bamban amas, which were historically plated with real gold, a detail that once reflected the wealth and social standing of the garment's owner. These original buttons, now rarely found, mostly appeared on the earliest forms of the Sinuangga' Do Binongkoh, and are no longer widely available on the market.

In contrast, the Kadazan of Papar wear the Siya’ Do Binoikian, which also features black fabric but with distinct tailoring and ornamentation unique to the Papar region. Papar Kadazan women wear an intricately embroidered blouse and a short skirt, namely gonob, featuring colourful handwoven textile, or langkit. The langkit is said to have come from Mindanao, Philippines through the Iranun. The langkit has been successfully preserved by the Iranun and the Lotud on the West Coast, as this painstakingly crafted textile is either disappearing or no longer being produced in Mindanao. Traditional silver jewelry like the bolilit (coiled bangles) and coin belts are commonly worn to complement the garment. Unlike the emphasised three silver coin belts worn by the Penampang Kadazan, Papar Kadazan women may wear as many or as few as they prefer. The regal-looking costume is completed with an expensive and distinctive handwoven hat known as the siyung. It costs nearly as much as three tangkong, though slightly less.

Penampang Kadazan priestesses possess a high status, and this can be seen in their fashion. Styling themselves in such a manner serves to distinguish them from ordinary people and emphasise their elevated social position. A sash which has intricate patterns is worn diagonally over each shoulder. Fastened by a silver belt, the sashes form an "X" pattern. The "X" pattern signifies discipline, responsibility and the weight of spiritual duty. The intersecting lines may also be seen as representing the interconnection between realms, the earthly and the spiritual, brought together through her role. They are visual reminders of her dignity, commitment and the sacred balance she helps to maintain within the community. This manner of wearing a sash is similar to that of the Rungus, except they use a beaded one, namely pinakol. On the head, a tall headdress, adorned with numerous bead strings and feathers, is worn. Its imposing height and intricate detailing mark her elevated status within the community. More than a decorative item, the headdress embodies the wisdom, maturity and deep ritual knowledge she carries, qualities earned through years of spiritual practice, a close connection to nature and communion with ancestral spirits. The Bobohizan's full garment, especially the headdress, may only be worn by a Bobohizan and is not to be appropriated, as it is considered unethical.

Men usually wear a matching black garment with gold embroidery, along with a sigah (folded headcloth) that represents regional and cultural identity, as well as the status and masculinity of the wearer.

These garments are commonly worn during major cultural events such as Kaamatan, rituals and weddings, reaffirming a sense of unity, continuity and pride in Kadazan heritage.

Marriage

In a traditional Kadazan marriage, dowry is paid to the bride's family, and an elaborate negotiation is arranged between the groom's and bride's families. As a traditional gesture of politeness and civility, the dowry is metaphorically laid out with matchsticks on a flat surface, and representatives from each side push and pull the sticks across a boundary to denote the bargaining of the dowry. Dowries traditionally consisted of water buffaloes, pigs, sacks of rice and even urns of tapai (local rice wine). Some families give a full set of tagung (locally made gongs) and tajau (locally made engraved jars), but this was more common in the past as these items are now considered very rare. Modern dowry negotiations also include cash and land ownership deeds. The dowry includes the costs of the wedding, with any additional expenses beyond the price of the dowry to be paid by the bride's family. Kadazan women from the Penampang and Dusun women from the Keningau, Ranau and Tuaran districts are widely regarded as having the most expensive dowries.

While it was traditionally customary for the Kadazan to marry within a village or a neighbouring village, a downshift in xenophobia over the past few decades has eased the difficulty once associated with interracial marriage. Due to the overwhelming Christian influence and some marriages to Muslim spouses, resulting in a mandatory conversion to Islam, such unions have often induced outrage and rejection, and are known to fiercely divide traditional Kadazan. Lately, Islam has been embraced by a growing minority as a means to political ends, considering the fact that the local Malay minority has gained political ascendance in recent years. Ruling Malay political parties have also openly extended political and economic privileges to Christian Kadazan who agree to convert to Islam, as well as to non-Christian Kadazan. The resultant demographic shift has, in recent years, further compounded the dwindling numbers of the Kadazan-Dusun community and consequently made it more challenging to preserve the culture and heritage.

Cuisine

A swordfish hinava served with sandwich bread.

Traditional Kadazan cuisine mostly involves boiling or grilling, which employs little use of oil, and with locally unique modifications and nuances as well as particular usage of locally available ingredients, particularly bamboo shoots, sago and fresh water fish. From simple appetisers of unripe mango dressed with soy sauce and chilli flakes to a variety of pickled foods collectively known as noonsom. Tangy and pungent flavours from souring agents or fermentation techniques is a key characteristic of Kadazan cuisine.

One of the most well-known Kadazan dishes is bambangan. It is a traditional dish made from a wild mango species native to Borneo, especially popular among the Kadazan. It can be eaten fresh or marinated. The marinated version, noonsom bambangan, involves salting the flesh and mixing it with the grated kernel, then storing it in jars to ferment over time. This process gives it a strong, tangy aroma and flavour. Typically served as a side dish with rice and meat, bambangan is an essential part of communal meals and festive occasions.

Hinava is a dish which is similar in concept to the South American ceviche. It is a salad made with pieces of raw fish which is marinated in citrus juice (calamansi or lime), ginger, onion and other ingredients like bitter gourd and grated bambangan kernel. The grated kernel has a similar texture to the strands of desiccated coconut flesh. This dish is sometimes served in certain Sabahan restaurants, which do not otherwise have a traditional Kadazan menu.

Another popular traditional dish is pinasakan, a preserved fish stew commonly made using saltwater or freshwater fish, typically small species. The fish is simmered for hours with takob-akob (a sour, dried fruit) or the pulp of the bambangan, along with turmeric, salt, and sometimes grated wild ginger. It is known for its distinctively sour and slightly oily flavor, and is usually eaten with plain rice as a staple accompaniment.

Tuhau is a fragrant and pungent traditional dish made from the stems of wild ginger (Etlingera coccinea), a plant native to the forests of Sabah. It is commonly prepared as a raw salad by finely slicing the stems and mixing them with chilies, salt, and sometimes lime juice. Alternatively, it may be marinated in vinegar and salt. Tuhau is often served as a side dish and is valued not only for its strong aroma and distinctive taste, but also for its cultural significance in everyday Kadazan meals and festive occasions.

Hinompuka' is a traditional Kadazan sweet rice cake typically enjoyed during festive occasions and family gatherings. Made from glutinous rice flour mixed with grated coconut and palm sugar, the mixture is wrapped in banana leaves and then steamed until fully cooked. The use of banana leaves not only helps retain moisture but also imparts a subtle earthy aroma to the dessert. With its rich, chewy texture and natural sweetness, hinompuka' remains a cherished delicacy among the Kadazan community, often served alongside other traditional snacks during various social events, particularly festive gatherings and celebratory occasions. Its rich flavor and cultural significance make it a popular treat at birthdays, weddings, and communal feasts.

The Kadazan people are also renowned for lihing, a traditional sweet rice wine that plays an important role in their cultural and ceremonial life. It is brewed using glutinous rice and natural yeast known locally as sasad, which initiates fermentation over several weeks. The resulting beverage is mildly alcoholic, golden in color and has a distinctively sweet, aromatic flavor. Lihing is commonly served during important events such as weddings, harvest celebrations, and ritual offerings, where it symbolizes hospitality, prosperity, and spiritual connection with the ancestors. It is one of several varieties of indigenous rice wine found in Sabah, but lihing is particularly associated with the Kadazan communities of Penampang and surrounding areas.

Montoku' is a traditional distilled liquor made from fermented rice, commonly produced and consumed by the Kadazan and other indigenous groups in Sabah. Stronger and more potent than rice wine such as lihing, montoku' is a clear spirit traditionally brewed using time-honoured methods passed down through generations. While it was once widely made in rural households, montoku' has become increasingly rare in modern times due to stricter alcohol regulations, declining interest in traditional brewing, and the growing preference among younger generations for commercially available European beverages such as red wine and beer. Nonetheless, montoku' continues to be served during cultural festivals and ceremonial occasions as a symbol of heritage and communal identity.

Contemporary Kadazan food has been influenced by Chinese and Malay food as well as international trends, and often sees the use of traditional ingredients interpreted in new and novel ways. For example, bambangan is available as an ice cream flavour. Chicken lihing soup, or sup manuk nansak miampai lihing, is popular among Chinese and Kadazan communities alike. Lihing is also used in marinades, local variants of sambal relishes and used as a flavouring for stir-fried noodles.

Music and dance

The Kadazan have also developed their own unique dance and music. "Sumazau" is the name of the dance between a male and female, performed by couples as well as groups of couples, which is usually accompanied by a symphony of six handcrafted gongs which are individually known as tagung. A ceremonial cloth sash is worn by both the male and female. The Sumazau with gong accompaniment is typically performed during joyous ceremonies and occasions, the most common of which being wedding feasts.

The sompoton is another musical instrument. It is an aerophone which is traditionally made from a dried gourd and bamboo pipes. The sompoton is played by blowing into it and produces a soft, harmonious sound, though the instrument is not as popular as the brass instruments.

Malaysian dancers teaching sailors assigned to the U.S. 7th Fleet command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19) on how to perform the traditional Kadazan dance upon the arrival in Sepanggar, Malaysia, 2010.

It was said that after the resurrection of Huminodun, from the original Bambaazon, the lifestyle of the Nunuk Ragang community as they were then known, began to improve as there was an abundant supply of food. The legend goes on to narrate that the spirit of Huminodun founded Momolianism, as the Bobohizan were taught the art of rites, ritual practices and ceremonies, taboos and traditional cultures, including the art of gong-beating and the Sumazau dance. In the age of Nunuk Ragang, the Bobohizan taught the people to fashion bamboos into various lengths, shapes and sizes and arranged them into an ensemble of seven musical instruments, the seventh item being the gandang (drum). The bamboo instrument is known as the togunggak. The Bobohizan taught the people the rhythms of the tagung ensemble such as Magagung, Botibas and Dunsai.

In the late 18th century, the Bruneian traders introduced brass gong canons and brassware in Sabah. The Kadazan were fascinated by these new brass items as they perceived them to be elegant, and they liked the melodious sound of the brass gong. Then, they began to acquire collections of these brass items as family heirlooms and the gongs were arranged into the typical ensemble of seven instruments, to replace the bamboo togunggak. Since then, the gong beats and rhythms were improved for a variety of uses. The gong beats to accompany any ritual ceremonies are usually monotonous.

As for weddings, festive occasions and welcoming receptions for dignitaries, the rhythm of the gong beat is exhilarating, melodious, lively and smooth. Sometimes the Botibas rhythm is performed as a variation. During funerals, the Dunsai rhythm is very solemn and fearsome, serving as a symbol of respect for the dead. The single beat of a solitary gong at short intervals was used to be a signal for emergencies like house fires and missing people who were either lost in the jungle or were lost due to drowning. However, there are only a few Kadazan people who know the skills of beating the tagung in this era. It would require a long practice session to gain experience.

It has been an issue that the Kadazan youth are not inclined to gain skills in playing the traditional music instruments. Thus, Magagung competitions and Sumazau dance competitions are held at the village level, not only to mark the Kaamatan celebrations but to preserve and promote the culture of Kadazan music and dance. Eventually, the competitions are held at the district level where the Sumazau dance competitions were judged based on the choreography, and as for Magagung competitions, based on the rhythm, tempo and overall sound quality.

In the early 1900s, these brass items were highly valuable and became symbols of family wealth. They were in great demand as dowry for marriage. Families without them faced difficulties meeting dowry requirements and were often compelled to search elsewhere for these items before the wedding. Although this custom still prevails in certain districts, in many areas, much of the dowry has been converted into cash. As for the brassware and especially the gongs, they have become priceless and rare commodities. An ordinary set of gongs can cost about RM10,000, while the best sets with high-quality sound can reach around RM15,000. The original gongs, although popularly known as brass, are not made entirely of brass. Instead, they are crafted from composites of iron, brass and copper, which produce a smooth, reverberating and xylophonic tone. Gongs which are solely made of brass are less popular because their sound has a flat resonance.

The Chief Priestess Bobohizan Bianti Moujing and the High Priestess Bobohizan Binjulin Sigayun, both from Penampang, were consulted during their heyday on the evolution of the tagung and rhythms. O.K.K. Datuk Jintol Mogunting, the former District Native Chief of Penampang who was an authority figure in the traditional culture and customs, was also consulted, and he gave a similar narration of the legend that has been used for centuries.

Another musical instrument, the kulintangan, akin to the xylophone, would be played as an accompaniment to the Magagung. Kulintangan, or miniature gongs, consists of a nine-piece ensemble, and according to preference, it may be performed simultaneously with the gongs to enhance the gong music. The latest types of gongs are made entirely of flat iron sheets, which are produced in Kudat. These are usually available at the weekend market, or tamu, in Donggongon, Penampang. Each set would cost between RM700 to RM1,500. The sound quality of these gongs are more like cymbals clashing and shrills.

Monsopiad Cultural Village

Monsopiad Cultural Village, located in Penampang, Sabah, is a living museum built to honor Monsopiad, a feared and revered warrior of the Kadazan people who lived over 300 years ago. According to oral tradition, Monsopiad was born into a time of frequent tribal conflicts. From a young age, he displayed extraordinary courage and was trained in the art of warfare. As he grew older, he took it upon himself to protect his village from external threats. Over the course of his life, Monsopiad is said to have slain 42 enemy warriors, and as a symbol of his victories, he collected their skulls, which were hung from the rafters of his home. These skulls now form the central exhibit in the House of Skulls, a solemn and powerful reminder of his legacy.

The cultural village was founded by Monsopiad's descendants not only to preserve his memory but also to safeguard the traditions of the Kadazan community. Visitors can walk the very grounds where Monsopiad once lived and engage with the customs he would have knknow such as traditional music, dances like the Sumazau, rice wine brewing and rituals led by a Bobohizan, or high priestess. The site also features his supposed original home, rebuilt using traditional methods, and includes a replica of the stone slab where Monsopiad is believed to have sharpened his sword. Beyond its appeal as a tourist attraction, the village serves as a sacred cultural archive, offering insight into the values, beliefs and warrior code that shaped one of Sabah's most iconic historical figures.

Belief systems

The majority of the Kadazan are Christians. They are mostly Catholics, and a few of them are Protestant. Islam is also practised by a growing minority. Prior to the conversion to Christianity and Islam, the dominant religion was Momolianism, which some scholars equate to animism.

Animism

Centre: a Penampang Bobohizan, 1921.

Animism was the predominant religion prior to the arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries during British North Borneo administration in the 1880s. The Protestant influence is due to later British influence during the 20th century. There was no "religion" for ancient Kadazan-Dusun and to them, it was just a sort of relationship between the seen and the unseen.

The Kadazan belief system centres around a single omnipotent deity known as Kinoingan. Rice cultivation is the center of Kadazan life and as such, various rites and festivals are celebrated and revolve around paddy cultivation. Kaamatan is the most recognisable festival attributed to the Kadazan-Dusun. This annual festival is essentially a thanksgiving ceremony, and, in ancient times, also serves to appease the paddy spirit, Bambaazon. Special rituals are performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess or spirit medium known as a Bobohizan.

Additionally, the majority of the Kadazan-Dusun people believe that the spirits of their ancestors dwell on the top of Mount Kinabalu. The Kadazan-Dusun call this mountain "Kinabalu" which is derived from two words, "aki", which means "ancestor", and "nabalu" or "nabahu", which means "coffin". Thus, "Kinabalu" means "abode of the dead". A Bobohizan does a ritual every year to appease the guiding spirit of the mount. The purpose of conducting such rituals is to placate the spirit of Mount Kinabalu as well as the ancestral spirits. The religious ceremonies are understood to be a means of seeking the spirit's sanction and soliciting their protection during a climb.

The Kadazan community, as a ritual isolate, is in constant interaction with the spirit world. This involves a number of sacrificial rituals to create a balanced ritual state between the Kadazan and the spirit world. The Kadazan believe in four principal spirits, namely the Almighty Creator (Minamangun), a living person's spirit (koduduvo), the ghostly spirit of the dead (tombivo) and the evil spirit (ogon).

The role and significance of the Bobohizan

When asking for help from a Bobohizan to cure someone's prolonged or severe illness, he or she is usually called upon. The Bobohizan would be informed with the relevant information by a sick person, this gives them a good background in locating the cause of the sickness. Bobohizan can also do preliminary consultations with the susukuon, or good-spirited consultant. Before a Bobohizan goes to the house of a sick person the next day, she consults her susukuon the night before as a way of finding the best way possible, determining the right offerings she can use in the healing ritual. She then knows whether a chicken, a pig or even a buffalo is needed for a sacrifice. Sometimes, it may only take a simple inait, or an incantation, to heal the sick. There are a number of inait, or incantations, that a Bobohizan has to select based on the cause of a sickness. The basic ritual is the popo'intong or sumuku to get in touch with the good-spirited consultant for further guidance.

The Bobohizan would chant other types of incantations such as searching for the strayed spirit of a sick person and preparing for its homecoming, appeasing an evil spirit that causes a person's sickness with offerings, reaching the stage of rundukon, or being in a state of trance to engage in dialogue with an evil spirit, acting as an oracle for communication in attempt to know its intention. It is the longest ritual of a Bobohizan that could last almost 24 hours.

They can also read an incantation to "cleanse the debris" that has been induced into a person's body by an evil spirit, cure a person from effects of black magic and liberate a sick person from disturbances caused by the dead. After being treated by a Bobohizan, for a day, or even three, one is not allowed to go out of the house.

The appointment of a Bobohizan

A Bobohizan is a traditional priest and ritual specialist of the Kadazan. Their appointment is determined by lineage and spiritual calling. Bobohizan act as intermediaries between the human world and the spiritual realm, performing healing, agricultural and funerary rites.

A chosen apprentice is believed to be chosen by an unseen nature spirit, or divato, to become a Bobohizan. A divato is also a protective guardian spirit unique to each Bobohizan, believed to guide and safeguard them through both the spiritual and physical realms. The calling typically reveals itself through vivid recurring dreams, visions, spiritual disturbances or unexplained illness. These signs are interpreted by senior Bobohizan or village elders as evidence of a spiritual summons.

The following is the testimony of Bobohizan Adam Gontusan:

I never felt that I was "the chosen one", but even I am amazed at how fast I am able to pick up the ancient languages in our inait and customs in our rituals, in such a short amount of time. We have no textbooks to refer to. You learn by listening and observing the elders. Some Bobohizan take years to master some rituals, but I can pick it up in one go. I only accepted that I was the chosen one in two very memorable dreams. In my first dream, I was walking into the House of Skulls at Monsopiad Cultural Village. It was filled with many Bobohizan, dressed in full traditional attire, sitting at the sides with their feet stretched forward. One of them called me to sit and said, "Bah, kasi mula lah" — "You can start now". I immediately began the Magavau inait and the rest joined in. I woke up after the second verse. The second dream came two weeks later. I was walking aimlessly and an old lady appeared before me. Without a word, she handed me the Bobohizan pedang (sword). The moment the pedang touched my hands, I woke up. The elders told me those dreams were a strong sign I was meant for this path.

— Adam Gontusan, 2021

The chosen individual may be approached by one or more divato, each guiding the apprentice in specific types of rituals or spiritual duties. These spirits are often associated with elements of nature, such as rivers, forests, or mountains, and may serve as both protectors and sources of ritual power.

Once the calling is confirmed, the individual enters a long period of oral apprenticeship under a senior Bobohizan. The apprentice learns ritual procedures, chants, taboos and the symbolic language of the spirit world.

Bobohizan are sometimes regarded as having different ranks or degrees of knowledge, depending on their level of mastery and the types of spirits they work with. Those with deeper knowledge or broader ritual authority may preside over more complex ceremonies or train others.

An apprentice becomes a full Bobohizan only after gaining the approval of their mentor and the recognition of the community. There is no formal ordination ceremony, their role is affirmed once they begin performing rituals independently and is accepted by the people as a legitimate spiritual authority.

While lineage is not a requirement, some Bobohizan may descend from earlier Bobohizan. However, the calling is open to any person believed to have been chosen by the spirits, regardless of family background.

Bobohizan are usually unmarried or widowed women, as this allows them to focus entirely on spiritual service. They are expected to uphold personal discipline and moral conduct. Though respected, many live modestly, relying on voluntary offerings and community support rather than formal payment.

The honouring of Bambaazon

In preparation for the ceremony, the village priestess carefully selects stalks of paddy and ties them together just before the harvesting period starts. These stalks are left in the field and not to be cut or tampered with until the harvesting is completed. The selected stalks of paddy symbolise the spirit of paddy, or in Kadazan, the Bambaazon. As soon as the harvest is over, these stalks are cut by the priestess and taken into the house of the owner of the field. The spirit would be in the house. Magavau then takes place when the paddy is winnowed and stored away in the barn.

The ritual of Magavau

Magavau can be seen as a sacred Kadazan ritual that serves both as ancestral reverence and the appeasement of Bambaazon, the rice spirit believed to guard the harvest and ensure the community's spiritual harmony. The ritual of Magavau begins just after sunset. The priestess and her attendants sit on the floor in the living room and start chanting an incantation or ancient mantra, or inait, to Bambaazon. This continues further into the night. Thereafter, the priestess and attendants stand up and slowly circle around the living room while chanting. After a while, they start to sing songs of praise to Bambaazon. At this stage, the men join the circle, singing together with the priestess and attendants. As they sing, they stamp their feet on the floor rhythmically and, at regular intervals, uttering the awe-inspiring pangkis, which is the triumphant cry of the Kadazan. This ritual goes on until the break of dawn, when preparations are made to feed Bambaazon with fermented rice, with ingredients similar to the rice wine tapai, prepared especially for Bambaazon in the previous evening, and tapai. The ritual concludes with merrymaking as a mark of thanksgiving. Bambaazon stays in the house, guarding the paddy in the barn until the next planting season, when another ritual known as Monogit is performed to take "her" to the paddy field.

Here is an instance of an incantation or mantra:

Odoi kada' kati' gangang arai,
kotunguan ko do pa'is,
otimbaar ko do sadap,
odoi kososodop zou do mogiginipi,
kosou ku do nokotimung kito do pamakanan do karamaian diti,
nga' ino noh maan zou,
do mamagavau do paai diti,
do ounsikou nodi kaka do Bambaazon,
do kosuni vagu' do to'un tiso,
do ka'anu no vagu' kotimung kito,
om ogumu' nodi do pamakanan tokou, mantad do paai.

Oral traditions

Kadazan in the Nunuk Ragang legend

Like the story of Huminodun, Nunuk Ragang is a story that has been passed down orally, possibly by generations of Bobohizan. The site of the tree is said to be roughly located at Kampung Tampias, where two rivers (Liwagu and Gelibang) meet to the east of Ranau and Tambunan. "Nunuk" is a Dusun word for the banyan tree. "Ragang" as well comes from the Dusun word "aragang", which means "red". Nunuk looked like a giant mangrove tree with highly developed buttress stems with deep indentions which provided good natural shelters. The Nunuk Ragang, or "the red banyan tree", as told by an old folk, Widu Tambunan, measured six out-stretched arms in circumference. The top of its canopy was estimated to be able to shelter seven joined houses, in which a house measured 12 by 20 feet. Its numerous branches and giant thick foliage provided for ideal shelter and habitat for wildlife, birds, insects and even spirits according to local beliefs. It is believed that the roots of the giant tree produced red latex that had a great medicinal value. In fact, the Nunuk's latex is still used to treat rashes and other minor skin diseases in the modern era.

Evacuation from the Nunuk Ragang area due to the Minorit Push of Nunuk Ragang, was decided through a meeting between the Bobohizan and the people. The leaders made an agreement that the tagahas ("strong") people were given a role to be the rear guards while others were immediately leaving Nunuk Ragang. River tributaries became their principal guidance for the direction of migration. Each group's direction of migration is guided by the flow of the Liwagu River. A Bobohizan said that, had the people not moved out of Nunuk Ragang, they would not exist today.

The Kadazan and Rungus migrated out of Nunuk Ragang through the Labuk River. Both the Kadazan and the Rungus went northwards and later arrived in Tempasuk, Kota Belud through the Marak-Parak valleys of Kota Marudu. This is where they made the decision to split, resulting in one group arriving in Matunggong and the other arriving on the West Coast, particularly Penampang and Papar.

Initially, the Kadazan's and the Rungus' shared settlement near Nunuk Ragang was an area which had the presence of white sand, or tangar-tangar, and was situated between two rivers which they called "pirungusan". Hence, the Kadazan were referred to as the Tangaa' or Tangara', and the Rungus derived their name from the word "pirungusan".

Consequently, the Kadazan and the Rungus share similarities in their languages today because they once lived in the same village near Nunuk Ragang. As the Kadazan settled the West Coast, they encountered the Bruneians and other settlers. Barter trade occurred through which the Kadazan had their gongs, copperware, brassware, silverware, necklaces and bangles from the Bruneians.

Kadazan in the Rungus origin story

According to the legend that is told from generation to generation, the Rungus were founded by a man who was persecuted by his brothers because he had various skills. He was good at crafting animal traps and weapons, which were capable of protecting his community at that time. It was because of these skills that he was persecuted. This caused him to be punished along with his faithful wife and companions by being banished across the sea.

The ships that they boarded were stranded on the island of Borneo, so they headed to Pampang Nabalu for religious purposes. He called himself an "usan-usan", who had no family as he was persecuted by his own siblings. While they were there, they were revitalised by spiritual activities through their veneration of Lumaag Nabalu. Rituals continued to evolve as they were increasingly crowded.

There was a spiritual figure who was proficient in law and inherited the customs of Usan-Usan, he was Aki Bobolizan Gomburon. As the crowd grew more, they felt that it was necessary for the laws of the society to be gazetted according to the rules of Usan-Usan. Aki Bobolizan Gomburon enforced one of the strictest laws, the law of Gomburon, which stated that anyone who committed adultery would be cast into the water to drown. This was done by inserting them into a type of bag along with a large rock. The rock must be chosen by the offender. If anyone intentionally murdered someone or something, then the person would be punished as well.

These rules continued until Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk received a revelation from Lumaag Nabalu, instructing him to abolish the law of Gomburon. According to the revelation, any sin may be redeemed through or paid for with a slaughter, which was referred to as mangaraha. All sins that could be redeemed through the slaughter of lives, could be redeemed through the sacrifice of one's livestock. This task was carried out by a bobolizan, which roughly means "a payer of sin and a middle person in pleading for forgiveness from Kinoringan". The name "Bobolizan" is derived from the Rungus word "bwolzi" which means "to buy". Pigs that were used to seek blessings or ask forgiveness from Kinoringan were not called "wogok" (pig) but "bwolzi". Bwolzi refers to the role of the pig in a sacrifice as a redeemer for an offender to get a new spirit after the sin redemption.

Then, the population grew rapidly in the time of Aki Nunuk Ragang. Aki Nunuk Ragang was the most well-known Bobolizan in advancing the teachings of the Labus traditional beliefs (animism). Before Aki Nunuk Ragang died, Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk received a message from Lumaag Nabalu. This message was regarding a new rule according to which the three sons of Aki Nunuk Ragang must migrate elsewhere because Lumaag Nabalu told that all the rivers which flowed from Mount Kinabalu to the sea belonged to the people. Therefore, their grandchildren or descendants would choose a high place, a hill or the highest mountain in any area they would settle at. All the rivers that flowed to the sea from the highest hills were the places guarded by the spirit of Lumaag Nabalu. Lumaag Nabalu could be called upon through a ritual called "Momurinaait" (mentioning the seven names of the main spirits which guarded the people).

Bobolizan Guraumanuk's teachings were developed by Aki Nunuk Ragang. All of Aki Bobolizan Guraumanuk's will was proclaimed by Aki Nunuk Ragang. Three sons of Aki Nunuk Ragang were Aki Rungsud (ancestor of the Rungus), Aki Longuvai (ancestor of the Kadazan) and Aki Turumpok (ancestor of all Dusun tribes).

Aki Nunuk Ragang sent his sons Aki Rungsud (the eldest son) and Aki Longuvai (second son) to the coast by conquering Pompod Tana' (Kudat, Kota Marudu and Pitas) to avoid being disturbed by the Mizonvaig's invasions. According to the message they received through the rundukon (a state of trance, approached by Lumaag that spoke in an incomprehensible language), it told them that the meeting area between rahat kotonobwon (the sea to the west) and rahat kosilzahon (the sea to the east) began to be invaded by outsiders. Aki Nunuk Ragang decided to take control of the entire coastal area to keep the people safe. Therefore, the men responsible for the security of the coast were Aki Rungsud and Aki Longuvai.

Aki Turumpok, as the youngest son, was regarded as the tandon tongkob (the heir to the parents' house), so Aki Turumpok inherited his father's home. Tandon tongkob still exists in the customs of the Rungus people today. "Tandon tongkob" means "the content or occupant that remains in the room". That also made Aki Turumpok the heir and leader of Kampung Nunuk Ragang.

Soon, Aki Nunuk Ragang died and was buried near a deep lake. The lake is located in the present place called "Kampung Tampias". According to legend, 40 days since Aki Nunuk Ragang was buried, on the day of the ritual of Mongupus, a fig tree grew in the middle of Aki Nunuk Ragang's grave. The fig tree was quite different because it was red, and if the leaves were scratched, the tree would release human blood. Then, the people of Aki Nunuk Ragang venerated the tree, and they named it Nunuk Ragang because they believed the tree was the reincarnation of Aki Nunuk Ragang.

Aki Rungsud managed to conquer Pompod Tana' and their descendants were referred to as the Rungus. Meanwhile, Aki Longuvai was struggling. He was not willing to leave Nunuk Ragang as his wife was heavily pregnant, and they would follow Aki Rungsud later. Aki Rungsud's journey would be marked with kukurungan (chicken cages) as a form of guidance. It was done so because every hilltop, which would have been passed by Aki Rungsud, required a chicken to be sacrificed. It was the way to call upon the guarding spirit of Borneo, Lumaag, for the declaration of authority over the territory they had passed through.

When Aki Longuvai was tracking his brother's route, he had mistaken the direction. This was all due to one route, in which there were two pathways going in opposite directions. The kukurungan, which were marked by Aki Rungsud throughout the pathway of the journey, unfortunately had been moved by a bitter-hearted person to the false position. As a result, Aki Longuvai became lost in the journey of tracking Aki Rungsud's path until they reached Pinampang. They lacked the supply of food, so they decided to set up a farm there.

After a long time, they did not come to Pompod Tana'. Aki Rungsud eventually found out through Lumaag that Aki Longuvai was lost. Aki Rungsud instructed his men to find Aki Longuvai and luckily they found Aki Longuvai in Pinampang. The servants of Aki Rungsud invited Aki Longuvai to join a mission in Pompod Tana', but Aki Longuvai declined the invitation. This was because of Aki Longuvai's unwillingness to live in a war zone and be in the state of emergency. To fulfill their father's request, Aki Longuvai promised to send his eldest son, Aki Bulun, who was born after they came out of Nunuk Ragang. Aki Bulun, without anyone, came to Pompod Tana' when he was 17 years old. Aki Bulun, however, was accompanied by seven extraordinary, highly immune dogs which are said able to beat a tiger.

In the session of dividing Pompod Tana' into certain areas, Aki Bulun and Aki Rungsud made divisions of the area by marking the boundaries through a method based on how far the sound of Aki Rungsud's gong could be heard from one side to the other. Thus, the attentive observers were camping at every hilltop in the Pompod Tana' area to hear the gong sounds at that time. If the sounds of the gong could not be heard any more, then a spear would be pierced into the ground, called "Binorudan". Binorudan was a spear used by coastal warriors which was as large as a yacht paddle, but moderate in size.

Today, Aki Bulun's descendants are known as the Gonsomon Rungus, who once dominated the east coast of Kudat. If further detailed, the language of the Gonsomon Rungus is almost the same as the Kadazan language. Due to the large number of dialects of the Kadazan-Dusun ethnicity, it is believed that the original language used before the separation of Aki Rungsud and Aki Longuvai was Rungus. As the colonisers initially settled the Penampang area, it had an early development with the establishment of shops for the colonial business's interests at that time. According to the ancestors, the people of Aki Longuvai who settled the area of kadai-kadai or shops, were originally known as the Kadazan people. In Rungus, the word "kakadazan" means "shops", or basically a town. When the Aki Rungsud people referred to the Aki Longuvai people, they would call them "tulun antad sid kakadazan", which means "people from the shop areas, or more advanced place".

The Nunuk Ragang area, after a while, became a place of chaos because Aki Turumpok abandoned the Labus laws. Aki Turumpok was most likely to be in a competition of magical powers, which resulted in the Nunuk Ragang area getting a kopizo. Whatever they did would result in contention and hostility between each other. This chaotic condition ended with a disease spreading because the Mamasi ritual was not performed.

Language

The Kadazan dialect has adopted several loanwords, particularly from other northern Borneo indigenous languages and also Malay.

The use of the language has been declining due to the use of Malay by the Malaysian federal government and by the use of English by missionaries, which was done through the method of language shift enforced by the work of both the colonial and federal governments. The state of Sabah has introduced policies to prevent this decline, which is also happening to other native Sabahan languages. This included the policy of using Kadazan and other indigenous languages in public schools. Efforts have also been done to allow the language to become official in the state.

In an earlier 2005 UNESCO report, the Kadazan-Dusun language was classified as an endangered language, spoken by a mere 300,000 people. The language has apparently joined the 7,000 other languages worldwide which face the threat of extinction. On the bright side, Datuk Philip Lasimbang, Chair of Board of Directors of the Kadazandusun Language Foundation (KLF) had stated that the Kadazan-Dusun language will never go extinct because it has entered the education system, is formalised and has been institutionalised.

The similarities between the Kadazan and Dusun languages are sufficient for speakers of these two languages to understand each other easily. In a nutshell, the most salient distinction between these two languages are the differences in their phonemic charts.

Unification

Presently, the Kadazan are associated with another similar indigenous tribe, the Dusun and various other indigenous peoples, under the blanket term Kadazan-Dusun. This is officially recognised as the result of political machinations, specifically a resolution of the 5th KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association, which was then renamed to Kadazan-Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA)) Delegates Conference held between 4 and 5 November 1989. It was decided as the best alternative approach to resolve the "Kadazan or Dusun" identity crisis that had crippled and impeded the growth and development of the Kadazan-Dusun multi-ethnic community socio-culturally, economically and politically – ever since "Kadazan versus Dusun" sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s.

The Kadazan and the Dusun share some similarity in language and culture albeit with differences in dialect. Many consider their traditional geographical influences as the major difference between the two ethnic groups. Kadazan are mainly inhabitants of the flat valley deltas, conducive to paddy field farming, while Dusun are traditionally inhabitants of the hilly and mountainous regions common to the interior of Sabah.

Indigenous status

Being indigenous to Sabah and a part of Malaysia, the Kadazan are conferred the same political, educational and economic rights as the predominant Malay population of Malaysia. The term ascribed to this is "Bumiputra" (from Sanskrit "bhumiputra"), a Malay word, which translates to "sons of the land".

See also

• Monsopiad