Gender expression
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Gender expression (or gender presentation) is a person's behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with gender in a particular cultural context, typically understood in terms of masculinity and femininity.[1] Gender expression is an external display of one's gender identity, through aspects such as clothing, hairstyles, voice, makeup, body language, and behavior.[2]
A person's gender expression may align with traditional gender roles or may be gender nonconforming, incorporating both masculine and feminine traits or neither. It may or may not reflect their gender identity or sex assigned at birth. Gender expression is influenced by sociocultural norms and is distinct from both gender identity and sexual orientation.[1]
Terminology
[edit]Although gender expression is often assumed to reflect a person's internal gender identity, the two are not always aligned.[3] For example, some transgender people may adopt expressions that differ from their gender identity for reasons of safety or comfort. Gender expression also differs from sex assigned at birth and is independent of sexual orientation.[4]
Expressions that diverge from conventional norms may be described as gender nonconforming. Common examples include men wearing makeup or dresses, and women with short hair or traditionally masculine attire. Some individuals adopt an androgynous or gender-neutral appearance, blending or rejecting traditional markers of masculinity and femininity.[5]
Certain terms are used to describe gendered expression within specific subcultures. For instance, in queer women’s communities, "butch" and "femme" refer to more masculine or feminine styles respectively. In men and boys, atypically feminine expression is described as effeminate; in girls and women, as tomboyish.
The term gender expression appears in legal contexts such as the Yogyakarta Principles and is recognized in the human rights laws of countries like Canada.[6]
Versus sexual orientation
[edit]While gender expression does not necessarily connect to sexuality, individuals often are misinterpreted as more masculine if lesbian and more feminine if gay, regardless of the individual's gender expression. These beliefs can lead to people misinterpreting an individual's gender expression based on their sexuality. Studies on adolescents conducted show that gay and lesbian individuals who did not express themselves as their assigned gender were seen as less acceptable. Individuals who expressed themselves with their assigned gender typically faced less social harassment and discrimination. On the other hand, heterosexual males whose gender expression was more feminine than masculine were the most discriminated against.[7]
The heterosexual matrix theory created by gender studies scholar Judith Butler says that people often assume someone's sexuality based on their visible gender and sex. It is one explanation why people tend to assume someone's gender expression based on their sex and sexuality.[8] Some sexologists, especially earlier on in the 20th century, viewed being gay or lesbian as a form of gender inversion.[9] It was thought that same sex attraction meant the person was actually the opposite gender and trapped in the wrong body.[9]
This idea was seen in figures in 1950s New York gay culture: effeminate men referred to as "fairies", as well as butch lesbians. Drag shows also can be considered a way that modifying one's gender expression that may indicate their sexuality, though this is not always the case.[9] Research shows homosexual people are generally more gender nonconforming than heterosexual people, and gender nonconformity throughout life can be an indicator of sexuality.[10]
Distinction from sexual orientation
[edit]Although gender expression and sexual orientation are independent, they are often conflated due to stereotypes. Masculine women may be presumed to be lesbians; effeminate men may be assumed to be gay, regardless of actual orientation.[11] These assumptions contribute to discrimination, bullying, and mental health challenges among those whose gender expression does not conform to expectations.
Judith Butler's concept of the heterosexual matrix suggests that gender expression is often read in alignment with both perceived sex and presumed sexual orientation.[12]
Historically, early sexologists sometimes viewed same-sex attraction as a form of "gender inversion"—the belief that gay individuals exhibited the traits of the opposite sex.[13]
Discrimination
[edit]People may experience discrimination based on gender expression, regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation. Studies show that gender nonconforming individuals—especially those assigned male at birth—often face greater levels of bullying, assault, and social exclusion. Discrimination may also extend to healthcare access. Research shows that individuals with non-normative expression can face implicit bias, misgendering, and reduced comfort in medical settings.
A lack of freedom in self-expression can negatively impact confidence and mental health. A 2017 study found that masculine-presenting lesbians forced to adopt traditionally feminine styles reported lower self-esteem and discomfort.
Academic terminology
[edit]In academic writing, a male who adopts a feminine expression is sometimes described as displaying gynemimesis (adj: gynemimetic), while a female expressing masculinity may be described as exhibiting andromimesis (adj: andromimetic).
- ^ a b American Psychological Association (2015). "Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People". American Psychologist. 70 (9): 832–864. doi:10.1037/a0039906. PMID 26653312. S2CID 1751773.
- ^ "Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Definitions". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- ^ Summers, Randal W. (2016). Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN 9781610695923.
- ^ American Psychological Association (2015). "Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People". American Psychologist. 70 (9): 832–864. doi:10.1037/a0039906. PMID 26653312. S2CID 1751773.
- ^ Kachel, Sven; Steffens, Melanie C.; Niedlich, Claudia (2016). "Traditional Masculinity and Femininity: Validation of a New Scale Assessing Gender Roles". Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 956. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00956. PMC 4932111. PMID 27458394.
- ^ Macfarlane, Emmett (2018). Policy Change, Courts, and the Canadian Constitution. University of Toronto Press. p. 391. ISBN 9781487523215.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: checksum (help) - ^ Horn, Stacey S (2007). "Adolescents' Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 36 (3): 373. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4. PMID 27519035.
- ^ Disch, Lisa (1999). "Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative". Political Theory. 27 (4): 545–559. doi:10.1177/0090591799027004006. S2CID 144841050.
- ^ a b c Hillman, Betty Luther (January 2011). ""The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 20 (1): 153–181. JSTOR 40986358. PMID 21488422.
- ^ "Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality". Personality and Individual Differences. 152: 1–5. 1 January 2020 – via OhioLINK.
- ^ Horn, Stacey S. (2007). "Adolescents' Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 36 (3): 363–371. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4. PMID 27519035.
- ^ Disch, Lisa (1999). "Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative". Political Theory. 27 (4): 545–559. doi:10.1177/0090591799027004006. S2CID 144841050.
- ^ Weinrich, James D. (1987). Sexual Landscapes: Why We Are What We Are, Why We Love Whom We Love. Scribner's. pp. 276–277. ISBN 978-0684187051.
Bibliography
[edit]- Anderson, Steph M (2020). "Gender Matters: The Perceived Role of Gender Expression in Discrimination Against Cisgender and Transgender LGBQ Individuals". Psychology of Women Quarterly.
- Hillman, Betty Luther (2011). " "The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972 ". Journal of the History of Sexuality.
- Klára Bártová; Zuzana Štěrbová; Marco Antonio Correa Varella; Jaroslava Varella Valentova (2020). "Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality". Personality and Individual Differences.
- Serano, Julia (2016). Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
External links
[edit]- "There Is No Perfect Word: A Transgender Glossary of Sorts" by Julia Serano
- Gender Analysis: Transition as gender freedom, by Zinnia Jones, 1 December 2014
- Gender Analysis: Identifying with a gender vs. reaffirming gender stereotypes, by Zinnia Jones, 1 June 2017
- The Gender Unicorn – Trans Student Educational Resources
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