Draft:Qujialing and Shijiahe cultures

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The Qujialing culture (屈家嶺文化, Hanyu Pinyin Qūjiālǐng Wénhuà) (3400–2500 BCE) and Shijiahe culture (石家河文化, Hanyu Pinyin Shíjiāhé Wénhuà) (2500–2000 BCE) are two major archaeological cultures of the late Neolithic period in China, primarily centered in Hubei province along the middle Yangtze River. These cultures, named after their type sites located 17 km apart, are now recognized as two phases of a single cultural continuum known as the Qujialing–Shijiahe culture. They succeeded the earlier Daxi culture (5000–3300 BCE) in the region and represent a significant development in Neolithic society, characterized by large-scale settlements, advanced agriculture, and specialized craftsmanship.

Location, dating, discovery history, and environmental context

Map of late Neolithic cultures in China

The Qujialing and Shijiahe sites, located in the Jianghan Plain of Hubei, were first identified as distinct cultures in the 1950s but were reclassified in 2013 as sequential phases of the same culture. The Qujialing site, representing the earlier phase, is situated in Jingshan County, while the Shijiahe site lies in Tianmen County. Initial excavations took place from 1955 to 1957.

The culture’s timeline spans approximately 3400–2100 BCE, with some scholars suggesting that earlier evidence (3400–3000 BCE) may belong to the final phase of the Daxi culture. Geographically, the culture thrived in the middle Yangtze region, bordered by the Dabie Mountains to the west, Dongting Lake to the north, the Three Gorges to the east, and the Nanyang Basin to the south. Most sites are located north of the Yangtze between modern Yichang and Wuhan, with some extending southwest to the southern bank of the river. These lowland sites, situated on slightly elevated terrain amidst plains and low hills, were ideal for agriculture and facilitated trade via the Yangtze.

The region was historically dominated by wetlands, rivers, lakes, and marshes, with settlements built on raised ground to avoid flooding. Archaeological evidence from the shores of Dongting Lake, recently embanked for farmland, reveals stilted structures from the Pengtoushan culture and Daxi culture, indicating a subtropical environment with deciduous and evergreen forests. Algae remains suggest periodic flooding. The climate was warm and humid during the culture’s early phases but became drier, transitioning to grasslands and scrub, which coincided with reduced human activity.

Subsistence

Agriculture in the region has deep roots, with evidence of rice cultivation dating back to the Daxi culture. Early rice farming relied on drainage systems, but by the third millennium BCE, irrigated rice paddies emerged, as seen at the Chengtoushan site with its reservoirs. The Qujialing–Shijiahe culture cultivated Oryza sativa (Asian rice), Setaria italica (foxtail millet), and Panicum miliaceum (common millet), alongside vegetables, amaranths, and plants now considered weeds.

Emergence of fortified settlements

The Qujialing–Shijiahe culture marked a significant population increase, with the establishment of large, often circular, fortified settlements. Some areas saw a quadrupling of settlement numbers and a five- to sixfold increase in their size by the middle Shijiahe phase, followed by a sharp decline below Daxi-era levels. These settlements, often grouped into small communities, included eight known sites encircled by earthen walls or moats, which expanded until the middle Shijiahe phase.

Compared to the Daxi culture’s largest site, Chengtoushan (6–8 ha), Qujialing reached 263 ha, and Shijiahe expanded to 800 ha. These fortifications likely served defensive purposes, reflecting the rise of early states like the Shang dynasty and inter-city rivalries. At Xiaojia Wuji (Shijiahe), a depiction of a warrior wielding a yue-type battle axe suggests conflict. Population growth and resource competition likely drove the formation of larger, more organized communities.

Qujialing and Shijiahe sites

The Qujialing site features a central urban area of 70 ha enclosed by a moat 25–30 m wide and 3 m deep, surrounded by ten residential zones and additional dwellings beyond the moat. The Shijiahe complex, spanning 8 km² across terraces between two rivers, comprises about 40 dispersed sites. Its central settlement, a near-perfect square kilometer, is the largest of its kind in Neolithic China. Originating as a small Daxi-era village, it grew into a fortified agglomeration by the late Qujialing phase and was abandoned by the end of Shijiahe. The complex, covering 120 ha, features earthen walls and moats up to 100 m wide, designed to manage flooding from the Han River and local streams.

Shijiahe houses exhibit varied designs, including concave-shaped structures, enclosed courtyards, and interlinked buildings, typically housing 20–30 people per courtyard, suggesting extended family or clan units. Larger dwellings within fortified areas likely served elite or specialized functions. Cemeteries near courtyards, containing about 20 graves, reinforce the clan-based social structure.

Craftsmanship, funerary practices, and symbolism

Tubular pottery sacrificial vessel, Hubei Provincial Museum

Specialized craft production is evident at several sites. At Dengjiawan, 17 pits contained over 10,000 small clay figurines (5–10 cm) depicting birds, hens, dogs, sheep, turtles, pigs, elephants, tigers, and humans, including one holding a fish and others in dance poses, likely used for religious purposes. Similar figurines have been found in Hunan and Henan. Other sites yielded thousands of red pottery cups, suggesting pottery workshops, or stone drills indicative of jade or stone working.

Qujialing ceramics, building on Daxi traditions, incorporated Yangshao and Dawenkou influences, introducing wheel-thrown vessels like bowls (wan), plates (dou), and jars (guan), reflecting increased productivity by specialized potters. Funerary urns were common, accompanied by diverse vessels like cups (bei), with some tombs containing up to 20 pots or red and yellow lacquered wares. Early copper objects, the southernmost found in Neolithic China, appeared at Dengjiawan.

In the late Shijiahe phase (2200–2000 BCE), jade became prominent in burials, with some tombs containing up to 56 pieces, including anthropomorphic figures, monstrous forms, cong tubes, birds, dragons, cicadas, and phoenixes, resembling Liangzhu culture artifacts. One male burial included 99 pottery jars.

Decline

By 2000 BCE, fortifications were no longer maintained, and the population declined significantly, unlike the abrupt collapse of the Liangzhu culture. Some sites show traces of the Longshan culture from the Central Plain.

Baodun culture (2500–1700 BCE)

The Baodun culture, recently identified in the Chengdu Plain near the Min River, features walled settlements (10–60 ha) adapted to frequent flooding. Excavations at Baodun and Guchengcun uncovered large public buildings, but no clear evidence of social inequality has emerged. Subsistence included agriculture, hunting, and fishing, based on tools found at the sites.

Characteristic artifacts

Qujialing culture

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  Burial with funerary pottery, Luoshishan, Huanggang
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  Black pottery and polished stone axes, Qujiapo cemetery
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  Ceramic funerary vessels

Shijiahe culture

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  Clay figurines: bear and monkey
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  Clay figurines: dog with fish(?) and hen
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  Clay figurines: turtle and pig
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  Clay elephant figurines, H. 6.8 cm
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  Clay human figurines, one holding a fish, H. 9.5 cm

See also

• Neolithic Chinese ceramics
• Neolithic China
• Geography of China
• Chinese art
• Prehistory of China
• Earlier Neolithic (7000–5000 BCE):
  • Pengtoushan–Bashidang culture (7000–5800 BCE)
  • Xiaohuangshan (7000–6000 BCE) and Kuahuqiao (6000–5000 BCE)
  • Laoguantai culture (6000–5000 BCE) and Peiligang–Cishan culture (7000–5000 BCE)
  • Houli culture (6500–5500 BCE)
  • Xinglongwa culture (6200–5200 BCE)
• Middle Neolithic (5500–2900 BCE):
  • Hemudu, Majiabang, Songze, Beiyinyangying, Xuejiagang cultures (5500–3300 BCE)
  • Daxi culture (5000–3300 BCE)
  • Yangshao culture (4500–3000 BCE)
  • Beixin–Dawenkou cultures (5300–2400 BCE)
  • Hongshan culture (4700–2900 BCE)
• Late Neolithic (3400–1900 BCE):
  • Qujialing (3400–2500 BCE) and Shijiahe (2500–2000 BCE)
  • Liangzhu culture (3300–2000 BCE)
  • Majiayao culture (3300–2000 BCE)
  • Longshan culture (2900–1900 BCE)
• Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (2200–1400 BCE):
  • Qijia culture (2200–1600 BCE)
  • Lower Xiajiadian culture (2000–1400 BCE)
  • Zhukaigou culture (2000–1400 BCE)
  • Siba culture (1900–1500 BCE)
  • Erlitou culture (1900–1500 BCE)
  • Erligang culture (1600–1400 BCE)

Bibliography

• Allan, Sarah (2005). The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective [The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective] (in French). New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09382-7.
• Debaine-Francfort, Corinne (1998). La redécouverte de la Chine ancienne [The Rediscovery of Ancient China] (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-039173-8.
• Fahr-Becker, Gabriele (1999). Les Arts de l'Asie orientale [The Arts of East Asia] (in French). Vol. 1. Cologne: Könemann. ISBN 3-8290-1743-X.
• Flad, Rowan K.; Chen, Pochan (2013). Ancient Central China: Centers and Peripheries along the Yangzi River. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89900-0.
• He, Li (2006). La Céramique chinoise [Chinese Ceramics] (in French). Paris: Thames & Hudson. p. 352. ISBN 2-87811-270-9.
• Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2012). The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-521-81184-2.
• Liu, Li (2004). The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489624. ISBN 978-0-521-64432-7.
• Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (2005). L'architecture chinoise [Chinese Architecture] (in French). Arles: Philippe Picquier. p. 368. ISBN 2-87730-789-1.
• Underhill, Anne P. (2013). A Companion to Chinese Archaeology. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 664. ISBN 978-1-4443-3529-3.
• Zhiyan, Li; Bower, Virginia L.; Li, He (2010). Chinese Ceramics: From the Paleolithic Period to the Qing Dynasty. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11278-8.

External links

• "Sublimes matières: À travers 5,000 ans de création en Chine" [Sublime Materials: Through 5,000 Years of Creation in China]. Musée Guimet (in French). Archived from the original on February 24, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2014.

This page will be placed in the following categories if it is moved to the article namespace.

Categories:

• Archaeological sites in China
• Neolithic cultures of China
• Hubei
• Yangtze River