Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849
| Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849 | |||||||
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| Part of the Revolutions of 1848 | |||||||
 Franz Werner: Skirmish in the Ács woods between the Hungarians and the Austrians during the battle of Komárom on 2 July 1849 | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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 Kingdom of Hungary Hungarian State(14 April – 13 August 1849)
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| Strength | |||||||
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June 1849 (at their maximum strength): 176,511 men and 818 guns of the Austrian Empire,[2] 192,904 men and 584 guns of the Russian Empire[3] 70,000 Romanian insurgents and[4] 900 Slovak legionaries.[5] |
June 1849 (at their maximum strength): 172,440 men and 857 guns[6] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
 16,600 killed or wounded[7]14,200 prisoners[7] 41,000 dead of disease[7]  903 killed[7]1,585 wounded[7] 13,554 dead of disease[7] | 45,000 dead from all causes[7] | ||||||
The Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849 (Hungarian: 1848–49-es forradalom és szabadságharc) started after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. After a series of serious Austrian defeats in 1849, the Austrian Empire came close to the brink of collapse. The new emperor Franz Joseph I had to call for Russian help in the name of the Holy Alliance.[8] Nicholas I of Russia agreed with Franz Joseph and sent a 200,000 strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. The joint Russo-Austrian army finally defeated the Hungarian forces, Habsburg power was restored and Hungary was placed under martial law.[9] Although the revolution war failed, it is one of the most significant events in Hungary's modern history, forming the cornerstone of modern Hungarian national identity—the anniversary of the Revolution's outbreak, 15 March, is one of Hungary's three national holidays.
The Hungarian struggle for independence began in 1848, part of broader European revolutions. Inspired by uprisings and led by Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian reformers achieved the recognition of the April Laws by the emperor, which abolished serfdom, ended censorship, and established a constitutional monarchy. Vienna, fearing loss of control and resources, secretly opposed these reforms and incited ethnic minorities—Serbs, Croats, Romanians—to revolt.[10] Hungary's multi-ethnic population complicated unity, and early military forces, a part of which were brought there from other provinces of the empire (Austrian, German, Polish, Italian), were limited, poorly trained and the loyalty of many was questionable.[11]
In June 1848, the Serbs from Southern Hungary rebelled, being supported in secret by the Austrians. AS many of the officers and foreign units serving in Hungary being reluctant to fight the Serbs, the Hungarian government built an independent army, growing it to 100,000 by October 1848.[12]
Encouraged by the Austrian victories in Italy, the Emperor finally revealed his intentions and dispatched Jelačić's 50,000-strong Croatian army to conquer the country. But the 17,000 newly formed Hungarian army stopped the enemy at Pákozd on 29 September,[13] but when they tried to help the Vienna Uprising from 6 October, the Hungarian forces were defeated by Windisch-Grätz at Schwechat.[14] Also in October, Transylvania was lost to the Imperial forces led by Lieutenant General Puchner and the Romanian rebels.[15]
Despite these early defeats by Imperial forces, Hungarian troops gained experience, notably under talented leaders like Artúr Görgei.[16] This was necessary because, in December 1848, the imperial troops began an attack under the command of Field Marshal Windisch-Grätz.[17] They launched a concentric attack from all four directions against the centre of Hungary.[18] While Görgei was forced to evacuate Western and Central Hungary as far as the Tisza River, General Józef Bem successfully took back northern and eastern Transylvania from the Imperial and Romanian forces from, while Kossuth’s other commanders prepared a counteroffensive.[19] But General Dembiński failed at Kápolna in 25-27 February 1849 against Windisch-Grätz.[20] After his victory, Windisch-Grätz declared the Hungarian rebellion crushed and aimed to seize Debrecen.[21] Franz Josef, viewing the victory as decisive, issued the March Constitution in Olmütz, reasserting Habsburg absolutism and revoking the internal autonomy of Hungary.[22]
But already in April, Görgei led a bold campaign. Victories at Hatvan, Isaszeg, Nagysalló and Komárom forced the Austrians to retreat from Hungary as far as the vicinity of Vienna, while Buda Castle was recaptured by Görgei in 21 May.[23] As a result of these defeats, Windisch-Grätz was replaced with Ludwig von Welden.[24] Meanwhile, Bem completely cleared Transylvania from the Austrian and Russian troops, and in collaboration with General Mór Perczel, Southern Hungary from the Serb and the Imperial forces. Profiting from these victories,[25] on 14 April 1849 the total independence of Hungary was declared.[26]
These successes forced Austria to call on Russia’s help.[27] Czar Nicholas I sent 200,000 troops.[28] With no foreign support, the newly formed and ill supplied Hungarian army of 170,000 soliers, faced impossible odds against a vastly superior enemy coalition of around 370,000 combined Austro-Russian professional army[29] and the tens of thousands of Romanian, Serb, Croat and Slovak militias.[4][5] Görgei was appointed commander in chief of the Hungarian army.[30] However, the allied Austrian and Russian armies, led by Field Marshals Julius von Haynau and Ivan Paskevich, launched a pincer movement similar to Windisch-Grätz's Winter Campaign in many respects.[31] Though Görgei maneuvered skillfully, Klapka crushed the Austrian siege of Komárom, Richard Guyon cleared Southern Hungary from the troops of Jelačić and Bem delayed Russian troops in Transylvania, defeats followed.[32] Bem was finally routed at Temesvár on August 9 by Haynau.[33] Görgei, cut off and outnumbered, surrendered to Russian forces at Világos (Szőlős) on August 13, 1849.[34]
Brutal reprisals followed: mass executions, imprisonments, and forced conscription.[35] Kossuth fled into exile, later touring the U.S. as a revolutionary hero.[36] Though defeated, Hungary’s social reforms endured, and in 1867 Austria was forced into a dual monarchy with Hungary.[37]
Military organization
[edit]Organization of the imperial-royal army in Hungary before the Revolution
[edit]The territory of the Austrian Empire, which also included the provinces of Galicia and Northern Italy at that time, except for the Erblande and the Lands of the Hungarian Crown, was divided into 12 main military headquarters.[38] The Imperial Military Council of Vienna commanded these headquarters in the Hungarian Crownlands: Buda (in Hungary), Nagyszeben (in Transylvania), Zagreb (in Croatia), Pétervárad (in Slavonia), and Temesvár (in Bánát). The headquarters wer headed by generals.[38]
The Hungarian main headquarters area was divided into 6 divisions, with two brigades in each division. The number of divisions and brigades in regions outside of Hungary and Transylvania was proportionally smaller.[38] Unlike the other territories under Habsburg rule, Hungary had a larger presence of imperial troops.
- Red: Austrian units,
- Blue: Hungarian units,
- White: Troops of the Military Border Guard Regiments.
Monochrome color - Infantry unit,
Half white: Cavalry unit.
There were also other military units in the area of the Buda main headquarters. In Pest, the artillery division headquarters covered all 5 districts in Hungary and Transylvania.[39] This headquarters controlled the activities of the field artillery, garrison artillery, and artillery depot. The wagonery headquarters was also located there.[38]
During peacetime, the Empire had 58 infantry regiments, 13 of which were recruited from Hungary and 2 from Transylvania. None of the one Jäger regiment or the 12 independent Jäger battalions in the Austrian Imperial and Royal (K.u.K.) Army was from Hungary, nor were any of the 5 additional infantry garrison battalions.[38] The Austrian Military Frontier, stretching along Hungary's and Transylvania's eastern and southern borders, recruited 18 frontier guard regiments and one Šajkaši battalion. Only 2 of these were composed of ethnic Hungarians from the Székely Land. The other regiments were composed of ethnic Romanians, Serbs, Germans, and Croats.[38]
The cavalry consisted of 37 regiments: 12 hussars, 8 cuirassiers, 6 dragoons, 7 chevau-léger, and 4 uhlans. The hussar regiments were recruited exclusively from Hungary and Transylvania.[40] The 5th Artillery Regiment and the Engineer Corps, which were stationed in the country, received their recruits exclusively from other provinces.[41] The regiments had defined recruitment perimeters and headquarters with 2 or 3 branch headquarters. Recruits were drawn by lot from these areas to the regiments in numbers determined by the Hungarian Diet. The length of service was ten years.[41]
At the beginning of 1848, only 24 of the 45 battalions from the 15 infantry regiments recruited in Hungary and Transylvania, 2 of the 5 grenadier battalions, and 4 of the hussar regiments were stationed in Hungary. Of the troops recruited in other provinces, 16 infantry battalions and 12 cavalry regiments were stationed in Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania.[41] These figures show that, by April 1848, the Hungarian government had only limited control over 43 infantry battalions and 122 cavalry companies.[41]
The army's basic combat units were the infantry battalion, the cavalry regiment, and the artillery battery.[42]
Birth of the Hungarian army after the Revolution
[edit]Article III of 1848 also regulated the powers of the Hungarian government in military matters.[42] But the emperor was reluctant to give the Hungarian government a say over the military stationed in Hungary.[43] In this regard, the Hungarian government requested clarification of the situation. On May 7, the king finally ordered the army headquarters to obey the Hungarian Ministry's orders.[44] On June 10, a royal decree extended the government's rights to the Military Frontier.[42] The Viennese court's leniency was not the result of their benevolence, but rather due to the empire's serious internal political situation, the outbreak of the Second Viennese Revolution on May 14, and the war in Northern Italy.[42]
This measure gave the orders of the Hungarian Minister of Defense full legal standing. This was particularly important for military leaders because until then, it had not been clear whether they should follow the Emperor's orders or those of the Hungarian Minister of War.[45]
Additionally, the organization of the National Guard was initiated under Article XXII of the law. Its main task was to ensure personal fortune, public order, and domestic peace, but problems with the imperial army stationed in the country quickly changed its role.[46]
Initially, only citizens of good character who owned at least half a serf plot or property of similar value, with a net income of at least 100 forints per year, could join the National Guard. By mid-April, the National Guard had grown to nearly 55,000–60,000 members, though only a quarter of them were armed with rifles.[45] However, this force could not be moved within the country and was largely untrained.[45]
The need for a reliable armed force became increasingly urgent. Discontent was growing in regions with ethnic minorities. The situation first escalated into an armed conflict in the south, where Serb rebels supported by the Principality of Serbia had to be fought.[47] The increasingly tense situation made it necessary to increase the size of the deployed troops.[45] However, increasing the number of battalions was not an option. The foreign troops in Hungary were reluctant to suppress the rebellion, and the Habsburg government blocked the Hungarian government's efforts to bring home the troops recruited in Hungary. Thus, a new approach was necessary.[45]
_from_1848.jpg)
On April 15, the Hungarian Council of Ministers decided to establish a regular national guard of 10,000 men. Consisting of 10 battalions and a battery of cavalry artillery, volunteers had to serve for 3 years in the National Guard. The National Military Council of the National Guard, operating under the Prime Minister's Office, was tasked with organizing this endeavor. Colonel Manó Baldacci was appointed chairman of the council.[45]
By the beginning of August, the National Guard had reached its goal of 10,000 men as outlined in the April 15th decision.[48] New battalion officers were transferred from imperial regiments stationed in Hungary. Retired officers were also appointed to command the units. Those who accepted these posts were promoted to major.[48] The Treasury provided the arms, but there weren't enough. The Hungarian government tried to make up for the shortage by purchasing weapons abroad.[48] These first battalions were the first to be known as the Honvéds.[48] To these 10 battalions recruited in Hungary, another 2 were added from Transylvania.[48]
Soon after their formation, the battalions were deployed south and along the Drava River. However, this force proved insufficient to continue fighting with the Serbs and control the border with Croatia successfully.[48] From the beginning, Ban of Croatia Lieutenant General Josip Jelačić refused to obey the Hungarian government's orders and threatened to attack the country.[48] Meanwhile, the organization of the National Guard's battalions and cavalry squadrons continued, but they could not be used for extended periods in the field. This became clear when an attempt was made to mobilize them on a compulsory basis, which failed. This failure led to the decision to establish a mobile volunteer national guard at the beginning of August.[48] The volunteers were gathered in 4 large camps — Vác, Pápa, Szolnok, and Arad — where they received abbreviated training before being sent to the battlefield.[48] During this period, a few irregular troops were also formed and later became Honvéd battalions.[48]
In addition to the growing National Guard and troops organized under the aforementioned law, the Ministry of War tried to ensure that the troops stationed in Hungary served the country's interests.[48]
Colonel Lázár Mészáros, the Minister of War (and General as of June 10), arrived in Pest from Italy at the end of May.[48] His first task was to organize the ministry, but he soon had to address the issue of deploying troops to the south to suppress the Serbian uprising. The organization of the ministry was completed by July 2.[48]
Mészáros tried to swear the regiments' personnel to the Hungarian government together with Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány, made seventeen attempts to send back troops stationed in Hungary who were recruited abroad, and to bring home troops recruited in Hungary who were stationed abroad. However, these attempts were repeatedly blocked by the Viennese War Ministry.[49] Therefore, the attempts to bring home Hungarian soldiers stationed abroad were mostly unsuccessful.[50] Of the infantry regiments recruited in Hungary, only the 60th (Wasa) Infantry Regiment was brought home in its entirety in June. Two battalions of the 34th (Prince of Prussia) Infantry Regiment followed in September.[50] The second battalion of the 31st (Leiningen) Infantry Regiment was also permitted to return home, but was ultimately sent to the fortress of Temesvár. In October 1848, the fortress's commander refused to obey the Hungarian government. Thus, the battalion was forced to fight alongside the K.u.K. troops during the War of Independence.[50] Thus, only 6 of the 20 infantry battalions from Hungary and Transylvania have been returned, but one of them will fight on the enemy side.
4 of the 12 Hussar regiments served in Hungary, and 2 served in Italy.[50] On April 24, the king ordered the 9th (Miklós) and 12th (Nádor) regiments to return home. However, this order was only partially carried out due to delays by the Austrian authorities.[50] Consequently, several regiments began deserting to return to Hungary, despite prohibitions from their Austrian commanders. The first regiment to desert was one company of the 6th (Württemberg) Hussars, who escaped from Galicia. The rest of the regiment later returned legally.[50] The 9th Hussars were permitted to return in full, but only one squadron of the 10th (William) Hussars could return legally. The rest came home by deserting.[50] The Nádor Hussars were retained while waiting for the order to return home, and the 4th (Alexander) Hussar Regiment was permitted to return in their place.[50]
After these unit exchanges, the Hungarian War Ministry commanded 28 infantry Landwehr battalions and 9 hussar regiments. 3 of these battalions were Italian, and the rest were Hungarian.[50] The debate on the recruitment law at the First National Assembly aimed to create a deployable Hungarian force.[50] However, the adopted bill was not ratified by the Emperor and was only partially implemented.[50]
The events of the War of Independence
[edit]The Serbian Revolt in the Summer of 1848
[edit]In spring 1848, Serbian assemblies in Pest and Újvidék demanded recognition as a nation and the end of feudalism in the Military Frontier.
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Kossuth rejected their demands, arguing that Hungary could only have one political nation—the Hungarian.[51] Serbs, seeking autonomy in Southern Hungary, formed the Serbian Main Committee at the Karlóca Assembly and called for armed resistance. Josif Rajačić allied with Croatian leader Jelačić.[52]
Thousands of volunteers from Serbia joined the uprising, leading to violent clashes and massacres.[53] On 12 June, Hungarian forces attacked Karlóca, marking the start of the Hungarian War of Independence. Despite early Hungarian success, Serb reinforcements turned the tide.[54] After this victory, Serb forces captured much of Southern Banat and Bácska. Attempts to negotiate peace failed.[55] Austrian officials, especially in Belgrade, supported the Serbs.[56] Due to the issues outlined above, neither the gradual increase in troops nor the change in commanders yielded significant results in the Bácska and Bánát regions. Despite two sieges, the most important stronghold of the Serbian insurgents, Szenttamás, remained unconquered.[57]
The first important Hungarian success against the Serbs came only in 2 September, with the Battle of Perlasz.[58]
Autumn campaign
[edit]The National Defense Commission's army organization work
[edit]In September, the organization of the Hungarian army took a new turn. The Batthyány government resigned due to the Croatian invasion and the increasingly tense relations with the Habsburgs. On October 8, the National Defense Commission (OHB), chaired by former Minister of Finance Lajos Kossuth, took over leadership of the country.[57] The worsening military situation was one of the main driving forces behind all these changes.[57]
The OHB's executive body for military matters was the Ministry of War, which incorporated the National Guard War Council.[57] This body now controlled the entire aspect of national defense.[57] Its organizational structure was changed accordingly. Eight departments were created: the Presidential, Military, General Staff, Artillery and Armaments, Recruiting and Replacement, Civil Administration, Justice, and Health departments. Later, the Border Guard Department was also created.[57] This reorganization was accompanied by the abolition of the former Imperial and Royal Military Administrations, which were still functioning.[57]
In November, the country was divided into 8 military districts.[59] The so-called military counties were tasked with carrying out recruitment and directing and controlling the military in the districts.[59] When intensive recruitment resumed in October, these bodies were given considerable responsibilities. Infantry battalions, cavalry regiments, artillery batteries, and sapper battalions were established one after another.[59]
By mid-December, the number of infantry battalions had risen to 62.[59] Several of the previously established volunteer national guard and irregular troops had already been converted into Honvéd battalions.[59] By the indicated date, only 10 National Guard battalions remained in the Honvéd Army.[59] Several foreign legions were also incorporated into the newly unified army's organization. The most notable was the Polish Legion, consisting of 6 infantry companies and a Uhlan company.[59] Additionally, the Viennese Legion and the Tyrolean Jägers were being organized. The Italian and German legions also played a role later on.[59]
The increase in size and number of the infantry and cavalry was successfully carried out under the guidance of experienced officers.[59] However, organizing the artillery proved to be much more difficult. At that time, this combat branch had almost no tradition in Hungary. A few Hungarian and foreign officers started it.[59]
In May, the 5th Artillery Regiment, recruited from Bohemia and Moravia and stationed in Pest, organized the establishment of the Hungarian artillery, providing equipment and instructors.[59] The first batteries were sent from this regiment to southern Hungary to fight the Serbs and then to the camps along the Drava River to fight Jelačić.[59] However, the vast majority of the regiment's personnel refused to serve in the field because they were not sympathetic to the Hungarian cause.[59] But, as the new Hungarian regiments formed one after another were up to the task. This rapid and effective work was mainly due to the careful selection of artillery recruits. Most of those recruited to the artillery were intellectuals, students, and people familiar with technical means.[59]
_who_fought_in_the_revolutionary_army.jpg)
The composition of the batteries differed somewhat from the organizational practice of the K.u.K. Army in that they consisted of 8 guns instead of 6. Otherwise, the artillery of the two sides was identical.[59] The batteries were primarily 6-pounder infantry and cavalry, with a smaller number of obsolete 3-pounder and heavy 12-pounder batteries.[59] The ordonance stores provided the necessary equipment until mid-December, by which time gun production had already begun in Pest.[60] By then, the army had already exceeded 30 batteries. This ensured an adequate proportion of artillery among the combat branches. In some cases and places, there were even more guns than needed.[61]
Similarly to the artillery, the task of setting up technical or engineering teams was unprecedented in Hungary. In September, the organization began with a call for craftsmen to work as sappers and engineers.[61] After a training program for civilians and soldiers who applied, the 1st Honvéd Engineers Battalion was organized in Pest in November.[61] Trench engineering companies were set up in the fortresses under Hungarian control to carry out the necessary work in this field.[61]
Developing reliable, professionally competent top-level leadership was one of the most difficult problems in organizing the army. After the split with the Viennese royal court, most of the general staff either left the country, defected to the enemy, or refused to serve. A similar situation occurred with the higher ranks and the officer corps.[61] Thus, the OHB had no choice but to rapidly promote capable active and retired K.u.K. officers who were willing to serve and fill the senior ranks.[61] By November, 3,000 veteran officers remained, but their numbers were constantly dwindling. They were joined by suitable individuals from civilian life, usually clerks, minor nobles, and intellectuals, who were expected to quickly learn the necessary skills and knowledge to fill commanding posts.[61]
Another constant concern was providing the necessary arms, munitions, and equipment. Since the army did not have enough war material in stock and the country was not prepared to produce it, securing the necessary supplies was extremely difficult.[61] Finding solutions to these problems, especially regarding arms and ammunition, was of the utmost importance. The country imported infantry weapons and equipment for the production of war materials from other countries and provinces of the empire, as well as Western European countries, as long as it was possible.[61] Meanwhile, preparations for domestic production began. Old factories were put into operation and similar factories were converted. Thus, the State Armament Factory was established to produce guns and ammunition. Providing clothing and footwear was less problematic.[61]
As a result of all this organizational work, the Hungarian military leadership could count on an army of around 100,000 to 110,000 men by mid-December.[61]
Hussars' desertions
[edit]In October, the Hungarian authorities secretly distributed leaflets to the hussar regiments stationed in Austria, Styria, Bohemia, and Galicia, calling the soldiers home to defend their country.
This resulted in a large-scale wave of desertions.[50] The hussars returned home in groups of 30 to 300 and were pursued by Austrian troops. One squadron (two companies) of the 10th (William) Hussar Regiment was allowed to officially return home, while the rest of the regiment's units deserted and fought their way through enemy territory to reach their destination.[50] The 12th (Nádor) Hussars were held back to fight the Prague uprising. The 4th (Alexander) Hussar Regiment was permitted to return from Vienna and Graz in mid-August 1848 instead.[50] However, the Nádor Hussars refused to stay away from their homeland, resulting in the desertion of many of their units. Desertions from the 8th (Coburg) Hussar Regiment began in October, resulting in heavy losses upon the regiment's return home.[50] Hussar desertions continued in the summer of 1849 until the defeat of the Hungarian Revolution.[62] The Hussars' escape was a testament to their courage, heroism, sacrifice, and patriotism. Often divided into small groups and pursued by Austrian armies, the Hungarian Hussars broke through traps, crossed rivers and mountains.[63] After the War of Independence was defeated, the Austrian authorities recorded the following in their minutes after interrogating deserting hussars: The suspected reason for the escape: love of the fatherland.[64]
Events on the main theater of war
[edit]Jelačić’s campaign in Hungary
[edit]On September 11, Josip Jelačić Ban of Croatia crossed the Drava River with more than 50,000 troops and approached the Hungarian capital in two columns. The Hungarian army retreated as far as Veszprém in the face of the overwhelming force.[57]
Upon hearing of the attack, Kossuth embarked on a recruiting tour of the Great Hungarian Plain.[57] In Transdanubia, Lieutenant-General János Móga gathered troops around Székesfehérvár. The 17,500-strong Hungarian army clashed with Jelačić's troops in the Battle of Pákozd on September 29. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Hungarians repelled the Croatian Ban's attack.[57] Then, taking advantage of a three-day truce, Jelačić then retreated toward Vienna.[57]
The day before the battle, Pest residents lynched Count Franz Lamberg, the royal commissioner sent to Buda by the emperor.[57] These events led to a complete break in relations with the Viennese court. The royal manifesto of October 3, which repealed the Hungarian April Laws and introduced a state of emergency, also indicated the start of open confrontation.[57] Based on this manifesto, several Hungarian military commanders refused to serve further and supported the imperial offensive against the Hungarian army that would soon begin.[57]
After the Croatian invasion began, Batthyány called for a popular uprising in Transdanubia to disrupt enemy supply lines. [65] The population responded with guerrilla warfare, causing significant losses tot he Croatian troops. [66] Intercepted messages confirmed Jelačić was acting under Austrian orders, proving the conflict was part of a Habsburg campaign. [67] On 3 October, Jelačić’s rearguard troops surrendered to locals at Székesfehérvár. [68] On 7 October, Jelačić's auxiliary troops, the 9,000-strong Roth column, surrendered at Ozora to the Hungarian troops and the popular uprising led by Colonels Mór Perczel and Artúr Görgei.[69]
Unsuccessful attempt to relieve Vienna
[edit]Meanwhile, Móga's troops followed Jelačić to the Austrian border.[57] Meanwhile, the Vienna Uprising began on October 6, forcing the emperor to flee the city.[70]
However, neither the Hungarians nor the Austrians made any further attempts to attack. Jelačić's troops were joined by the main Austrian forces led by Field Marshal Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, who had come from Prague.[57] Together, they began besieging Vienna in an attempt to suppress the revolution that broke out on October 6.[57] At the Austrian border, the Hungarian leadership could not decide whether to cross and support the revolutionaries. After nearly a month of indecision, Kossuth arrived at the Hungarian camp and urged them to advance. On October 30, they finally crossed the border and headed toward Vienna, but were defeated in the Battle of Schwechat the following day.[57] Operations paused for one and a half months, during which time the Honvéd Army was hastily reinforced.[57]
Defection of castles and fortresses
[edit]Following the imperial manifesto of 3 October, the Main Army Commands of Transylvania and Banat rebelled against the Hungarian government.[71] Key fortresses like Temesvár, Arad, and Gyulafehérvár sided with the emperor.[66] However, by late September 1848, Hungary secured Komárom, Pétervárad, and smaller forts such as Lipótvár, Eszék, and Munkács.[66] Ultimately, most fortifications west of the Tisza were held by Hungary, while those east remained under imperial control.[66]
Operations in Transylvania
[edit]At their national assembly in Balázsfalva (16–28 September), the Romanians declared that they do not accept the Hungarian rule in Transylvania,
but rather adopt the Austrian constitution. They also decided to arm the Romanian population.[72]
A Romanian rebellion began, secretly supported by General Anton Puchner, commander of the Transylvanian Military Headquarters.[73] On 18 October, he openly revolted against the Hungarian government with the entire army under his command, citing the royal manifesto of 3 October.[74] Using the Saxon-populated regions as a base, Puchner then started his attack. Outnumbered, the Hungarian national guard units and militias in Transylvania were unable to withstand the professional Austrian troops and nationalist insurgents, nor protect the Hungarian civilian population from Romanian armed bands.[74] As a result, thousands of Hungarians were massacred in towns and villages such as Zalatna, Gerendkeresztúr, Kisenyed, Magyarigen or Felvinc.[75] The Székelys, supporting Hungarian unity, rose against Puchner but were poorly armed.[76] After initial success, they were defeated at Marosvásárhely on 5 November.[77] Further Hungarian resistance near Kolozsvár collapsed, and a relief force was also defeated in the First Battle of Dés on 25 November, bringing Transylvania fully under Austrian control.[74]
Operations in Southern Hungary
[edit]Following the rebellions at Arad and Temesvár, the Serbian uprising continued, with combined Serbian-Austrian forces reaching up to 40,000 men and 160 cannons, while Hungarian forces numbered around 28,000 with 106 cannons.[78] Despite being outnumbered, Hungarians held their ground, winning the Battle of Törökbecse-Óbecse-Nagykikinda against the attacking Serbs.[79] Peace efforts in late November failed, and no major battles occurred in Bácska by year’s end.[80]
Winter Campaign
[edit]General situation and balance of power
[edit]At the beginning of December, the complicated Austro-Hungarian relationship was simplified. Court circles led by Prime Minister Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg strove to restore absolutism to the empire.[81] Taking advantage of the successful conclusion of the war in northern Italy, they sought to abolish the autonomy granted to Hungary by the April Laws, which were sanctioned by King Ferdinand V. To this end, King Ferdinand V was deposed on December 2 and replaced by Franz Joseph I.[81] Thus, the abolition of Hungary's autonomy and its reintegration into the empire could begin.[81]
The Austrian armies, led by Field Marshal Windisch-Grätz, were massed around Vienna. Meanwhile, tens of thousands of Serbian and Austrian troops were stationed in Bácska and Bánát,
and Austrian troops led by Lieutenant-General Puchner were preparing to attack the Hungarians from the rear in Transylvania. Windisch-Grätz thus prepared to attack Hungary from all directions. [81] The total number of these troops was close to 150,000, with approximately 350 guns. [81] The major Austrian fortresses in the region were Arad, Temesvár, and Gyulafehervár.[81] The campaign aimed to capture the Hungarian capitals of Pest and Buda; the main line of attack was from Vienna to Győr, Komárom, and Buda. These troops had to attack the center of the country simultaneously.[81] Additionally, tens of thousands of irregular Romanian rebel troops and a few hundred Slovak rebels took part in the fighting against Hungary.[82]
Following Móga's resignation, General Artúr Görgei led the main grouping of Hungarian troops.[81] The most important fortresses in Hungarian hands were Komárom, Pétervárad, and Eszék. Additionally, the Hungarian leadership could indirectly rely on the Transylvanian Székelys, who had rebelled against the Austrians in the Háromszék region.[81]
The total number of the Hungarian army, without the national guards and the troops in formation was 100,000 soldiers and 300 cannons.[83]
The Hungarian troops aimed to prevent the enemy from crossing the border and preserve the political gains made in March and April.[84] There was no commander-in-chief to coordinate the troops' activities; the commanders were given political guidance, at most. The troops were very varied, with no centralized control.[84]
Events on the main theater of war
[edit]Attack from the West of the Austrian main army
[edit]The Austrian main force crossed the border on December 14th.[84] It was deployed on both sides of the Danube River. After exercising only minimal resistance, the Hungarian divisions along the border retreated to Győr and took up positions in its entrenchments.[84]
On December 18, Windisch-Grätz took Pozsony and remained there for 9 days, waiting for the II (Wrbna) Corps to cross from the left bank of the Danube to continue the attack.[84] On December 27, Austrian troops marched into Győr, whose entrenchments Görgei deemed unsuitable for a prolonged defense.[84] Meanwhile, on December 16, General Simunich advanced and captured Nagyszombat.[84]
The OHB designated the Vértes Hills as the next defensive position for the Hungarian troops and assigned General Mór Perczel, from the Dráva region, to quickly march his forces there and join Görgei's army. However, the two armies did not merge because Jelačić defeated Perczel's troops I's corps in the Battle of Mór on December 30.[84] Deeming the Vértes region unsuitable for defense, Görgei resumed his retreat after fortifying Komárom. On December 31, the main Hungarian army arrived on the outskirts of Buda, where it was deployed for defense again.[84] Meanwhile, after failing to negotiate with Windisch-Grätz, the Hungarian government, along with important institutions and factories, left the capital and moved to Debrecen and Nagyvárad.[84]
On January 2, the Hungarian military leaders gathered in Pest and held a council of war.[84]
They decided to evacuate the capital without a fight, setting the next objectives and tasks. The primary defensive objective was to concentrate forces along the Tisza River to stop the enemy and, if possible, seize the initiative. To this end, the Perczel Corps was reinforced and directed to Szolnok.
The two corps fighting in the south—the Bácska Corps, led by General Károly Vécsey, and the Bánát Corps, led by General János Damjanich—were ordered to evacuate the region and relocate to the middle course of the Tisza.
They left the necessary defensive forces behind along the Maros River. Görgei's Upper Danube Army was ordered to turn north and northwest to relieve Lipótvár, and if possible, Komárom, to force the Austrian main army to split.[84] The troops began their missions on January 3 and 4.[84]
After unsuccessfully calling for the surrender of Komárom, Windisch-Grätz resumed the offensive on January 5, 1849. He left a reinforced brigade behind and marched to Pest, sending a brigade to Székesfehérvár.[84]
The Austrian commander-in-chief then abandoned any further advance, sending only one cuirassier brigade after Perczel and one division after Görgei.[84] Meanwhile, Simunich surrounded Lipótvár.[84]
The Central Mobile Army, another corps of the Hungarian army that was facing Field Marshal Windisch-Grätz's troops and was led by General Mór Perczel, retreated behind the Tisza River.[85] Then, on January 22, they recaptured Szolnok. Two days later, on January 24, they defeated the Ottinger Brigade in the Battle of Cegléd. However, they were then ordered back to Szolnok.[85] During this time, the Hungarians lost the Lipótvár and Eszék fortresses to the K.u.K. troops.[85]
Görgei's Retreat through Northern Hungary
[edit]The reduced Upper Danube Army (which was then a corps) was tasked with the most difficult mission of all the troops and left Pest on the 4th to cross Hungary towards northeast Hungary.[85]
At Vác, Görgei delivered a proclamation to his officers emphasizing the importance of maintaining unity and upholding law and order within the corps.[85] However, due to the political criticisms in the proclamation, Kossuth began to distrust Görgei.
This conflict, with its ups and downs, accompanied their relationship throughout and influenced the development of military affairs.[86] On the 11th, the corps engaged in a minor rearguard action against the advancing Csorich division and Simunich's troops approaching from Lipótvár. This forced Görgei to abandon his original objective and lead his troops through the mining towns of northern Hungary to avoid being encircled.[85] During the ten-day rest period, the corps equipped and trained recruits and collected state property in the area.[85] On the 25th, Görgei received the Minister of War's order to move to Upper Tisza. However, the Austrian Götz Brigade, which had arrived from the north, hastened his retreat as well.[85]
On the 26th, the corps left in two columns. The northern column passed through the Sturec Pass to Rózsahegy and continued to Poprád, while the southern column traveled along the Garam to Igló.[85] On February 5, the Deym Brigade of Schlik's Corps blocked further advances eastward, but Guyon's division drove them off in a bloody engagementat in the Battle of Branyiszkó.[85] Then, on February 10, Görgei's troops marched into Kassa and joined the Upper Tisza Corps, commanded by Colonel György Klapka.[85]
Attack on Northern Hungary
[edit]
Schlik's corps crossed the border on December 6 and defeated the Hungarian forces led by General Pulszky on December 11 in Budamér.[85] On January 4, 1849, in Kassa, Schlik's troops defeated those led by War Minister General Mészáros, who had taken command from Pulszky.[85] In mid-January, Colonel Klapka took command of the army facing Schlik. Between January 22 and 31 the new commander defeated Schlik in three engagements along the Tisza, in the Battles of Tarcal, Bodrogkeresztúr, and Tokaj.[85] This prevented Schlik from marching toward Debrecen, where the Hungarian government had retreated.[85] Then, Schlik was forced to retreat from the region toward central Hungary when, as mentioned above, Görgei's corps arrived in Kassa.[85]
Operations in Transylvania
[edit]Resistance of the Székelys from Háromszék
[edit]By late November, Hungarian forces were pushed out of Transylvania, with only the Székelys of Háromszék in the southeast remaining loyal to the Hungarian Government. [87] There, locals mobilized under local leaders. Áron Gábor was one of the most important of these. He cast cannons from church bells.[88] In the first half of December, the Székelys defeated and repulsed imperial forces in several battles (for example, the Battle of Rika).[89] However, they were defeated in the Battle of Hídvég on 24 December.[90] Due to the resistance in Háromszék, Puchner was unable to deploy all his troops against the Hungarian forces led by Józef Bem, who were gathering in the west. This contributed to Bem's successes in his Transylvanian campaign, which began in the same period.[91]
Józef Bem turns the tide
[edit]By December 1848, Lieutenant General Puchner had taken full control of Transylvania. The Hungarian troops had been pushed back to Csucsa, Feketetó, Kraszna, and Nagybánya.[92]
Then, at the beginning of December, Polish General Józef Bem took command. By mid-December, he had received reinforcements, bringing his total to 12,500 troops and 24 guns.[92]
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This force faced Puchner's army of 17,000 regular soldiers and tens of thousands of Romanian and Saxon insurgents.[92] According to Windisch-Grätz's aforementioned plan for a concentric attack on the center of Hungary, the troops aimed to advance toward Nagyvárad and Debrecen.[92] On December 18, three brigades advanced against the Hungarian troops deployed in the passes between Transylvania and Hungary. However, the Hungarian troops repulsed these attacks, allowing Bem to take the initiative.[92] His swift campaign in northern Transylvania confused the enemy and cut the Imperial troops off from each other.[92] On December 26, Bem united his forces at Kolozsvár.[92] His next objective was to drive the brigades of Colonels Karl von Urban and Gustav Jablonsky out of Northern Transylvania. The Hungarian army accomplished this during the last days of December and the first days of January.[92]
From the Bukovina border, Bem advanced to Marosvásárhely, where he faced Puchner's main force. On January 17, Bem defeated the Austrian general at Szőkefalva.[92] Encouraged by this victory, Bem attacked Puchner's main base. However, in the First Battle of Nagyszeben, he was repulsed. He then marched to Szelindek, where he repelled Puchner's attack on January 30.[92] However, on the same day, 7,000 Russian troops led by Colonels Engelhardt and Sakriatin arrived in Transylvania to support the Austrians. Their mission was to defend the two major cities in southern Transylvania, Brassó and Nagyszeben, which were under Puchner's control. This allowed the Austrian general to deploy his entire army against Bem.[93]
Bem, hoping to get help from Bánát, sent part of his army to Déva, while he retreated to Vízakna. In the Battle of Vízakna, he was attacked again by much superior Austrian forces, which he fended off successfully at first, but after he went on the offensive, his army was almost completely crushed by Puchner.[92] The Polish general led the remnants of his troops to Szászsebes, then to Szászváros, and finally to Piski, where he rejoined his troops sent earlier to Déva and the reinforcements coming from Arad.[92] On 9 February, with 8,000 men and 30 guns, he defeated Puchner's army in the Battle of Piski.[92]
Retreat from Southern Hungary
[edit]
In December, the Hungarian launched an offensive to suppress the Serbian uprising, occupying several Serb fortified camps like Tomasevác and Alibunár, and winning several victories, like the Battle of Jarkovác on 15 December. [94] However, attempts to capture Austrian-held fortresses like Arad failed. [95] A major Hungarian defeat in the Battle of Pancsova on 2 January[96] led to Ernő Kiss’s dismissal from the command of the Bánát Corps, replaced by Damjanich. [97] On 16 January, Hungarian forces were ordered to abandon positions south of the Maros River and retreat to defend the Tisza line. By late January, Bácska, Bánát, and South Transdanubia fell to imperial forces. [98] In February, the Serbs advanced on Szeged, but in the Battle of Újszeged the Hungarian troops repelled them. [99]
Counterattack by the Hungarian main force led by Dembiński
[edit]As shown above, on January 2, the military council decided to concentrate the forces fighting in Transdanubia.[85]
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Kossuth deemed Polish Lieutenant General Henryk Dembiński the most suitable candidate to lead the concentrated army. The general was appointed commander-in-chief on January 29.[85]
On February 12, the War Ministry organized the Hungarian armies, and the corps and divisions were numbered.[100] However, abandoning the previous corps organization in favor of divisions initially confused and was not adhered to.[100] Meanwhile, Windisch-Grätz consolidated his troops, established contact with Lieutenant-General Franz Schlik's corps, and ordered the Austrian army to advance toward Hatvan-Gyöngyös. He planned to meet Schlik in Gyöngyös and then attack Debrecen.[100] While executing the marches, the Austrian II (Wrbna) Corps clashed with the Hungarian divisions at the Tarna River. The two-day Battle of Kápolna, fought on February 26–27, was unplanned, as evidenced by neither commander-in-chief participating in the first day's fighting. The battle was decided by the Schlik Corps' successful attack, which joined the Austrian main army from the north via the Sirok Strait, as well as by the conflict between the Hungarian commander-in-chief and the corps and division commanders.[100] The Hungarian troops were defeated but left the battlefield with their fighting capacity intact.[100] They easily beat back the pursuers the next day in the Battle of Mezőkövesd, proving this point. Windisch-Grätz, therefore, did not continue his campaign.[101]
Meanwhile, Generals Damjanich and Vécsey scored a victory in the Second Battle of Szolnok on March 5, further undermining Windisch-Grätz's confidence in a swift final victory.[100]
The officers’ revolt in Tiszafüred, and its consequences
[edit]_battalion_in_the_Battle_of_Szolnok_-_painting_by_Imre_Greguss.jpg)
On March 3, in Tiszafüred, the sub-commanders "rebelled" against Dembiński. They accused him of causing the defeat at Kápolna.[100] Kossuth replaced Dembiński and, despite his dislike of Görgei, temporarily appointed Görgei as the main commander.[100] Then, on March 8, Kossuth appointed Antal Vetter, head of the War Ministry's General Staff Department, as general-in-chief.[100] After taking command, Vetter drew up plans for the counterattack.
Vetter had several plans in mind. One corresponded to the plan before the Battle of Kápolna, and the other was the opposite: the main force would attack toward Szolnok-Pest.[100] However, at Damjanich's suggestion, a third plan was implemented. The main force had to attack through the bridge at Cibakháza, while the VII (Görgei) Corps had to advance through Tiszafüred at the same time.[100]
Spring Campaign
[edit]General situation and balance of power
[edit]In the last days of March, the I, II, and III Corps crossed the Tisza and joined the VII Corps in the Tiszántúl region.[102] The four corps had a total of 50,000 soldiers and 200 artillery pieces.[102] The campaign planned to engage the enemy in the Gödöllő area from the Aszód direction with the VII (Gáspár) Corps.[102]
Meanwhile, the I (Klapka) Corps, III (Damjanich) Corps, and the II (Aulich) Reserve Corps would bypass the Austrian right flank and force the enemy into battle from the Jászberény-Nagykáta-Isaszeg direction.[102] Görgei hoped that these simultaneous attacks from both directions would lead to a decisive defeat of the Austrian army.[102]
The Hungarians had in all fronts 101 000 soldiers and 7000 were in formation. The number of their guns was 624.[103]
Windisch-Grätz had no precise information about the movements of the Hungarian troops.[102] In any case, he abandoned the attack on Debrecen and gathered his troops on the outskirts of Pest. The I (Jelačić) Corps was stationed in Szolnok, with most of its divisions in Cegléd; the II (Wrbna) Corps was in Vác and Balassagyarmat; and the III (Schlik) Corps was in Gödöllő.[102] Windisch-Grätz had a total of 55,000 men and 220 guns.[102]
In Transylvania, there were 13,000 Austrian field and garrison troops, 7000 Russian soldiers and tens of thousands of Romanian militias. [104] Is Southern Hungary tere were around 30,000 Serb and Austrian field, and 10,000 garrison troops. [105]
Thus, at the start of the Spring Campaign, the Austrians had a total of 115,000 K.u.K. soldiers, Russian auxiliary forces and Serbian allies under their command, not to mention the tens of thousands of Romanian militia.
Operations in Transylvania
[edit]
After his victory at Piski, Bem returned to northern Transylvania to repel Urban's brigade, which had once again invaded from Bukovina. After driving them back, Bem turned against Puchner, who had advanced to Medgyes.[106] He lost the Battle of Medgyes on March 2–3 and was forced to retreat to Segesvár.[106] When the Austrian general attempted to surround Segesvár and trap Bem there, he escaped with his troops undetected.[107] After a forced march, Bem arrived in front of the Austrian headquarters in Transylvania on March 11. In the Second Battle of Nagyszeben, Bem defeated the Russian and Austrian defense troops and captured the city.[106] As a result, the Russian and Austrian troops fled Transylvania, leaving it in the hands of the Hungarians. Gyulafehérvár and Déva were the only places that remained in Austrian hands, along with the West Transylvanian Mountains, which remained the last stronghold of the Romanian rebels.[108]
Operations in Bácska and in Bánát
[edit]After the majority of the Hungarian troops departed, only a small division remained on the southern front under the command of Colonel Ágoston Hadik.[106] Stationed around Szeged, this force was unable to prevent Field Marshal Nugent from capturing the Eszék castle on February 14.[106] Nevertheless, on March 5, they repelled the Serbian attack at the Battle of Kaponya, consolidating the Hungarian positions along the Maros River.[109] The number of Hungarian troops increased steadily, reaching 14,000 soon thereafter. General Mór Perczel was appointed to lead these troops, forming the IV Corps.[106] The corps commander first attempted to relieve the besieged town of Pétervárad, succeeding only from the north after several victories against the Serbs.[110] The general's next target was the fortified Serbian camp at Szenttamás, which in 1848 had already repelled three Hungarian sieges. But Perczel’s Fourth Siege of Szenttamás on April 3rd was finally successful.[106] His next objective was to clear the Titel Plateau, but he failed.[106]
Campaign of the Hungarian main army
[edit]Second Hungarian counterattack attempt
[edit]On March 16, the I (Klapka), II (Aulich), and III (Damjanich) corps started to cross the Tisza River at Cibakháza. However, the campaign was interrupted due to poor weather conditions and unreliable reconnaissance reports. The corps then returned to the left bank of the river.[100] Following this failed attempt, Vetter regrouped his troops to the north.[100] He fell ill during this time, though, and Kossuth appointed Görgei to the High Command—again, only temporarily.[100]
Main offensive
[edit]Gödöllő-operation
[edit]The campaign began on April 1st.
The first engagement of the campaign took place on April 2 in the Battle of Hatvan and was fought by troops belonging to the Gáspár and Schlik corps.[102] Following this battle, the Austrian troops, who had been sent to reconnoiter, withdrew to Gödöllő. The bypassing Hungarian corps advanced unopposed until April 4, when the leading I Corps (Klapka) was attacked unexpectedly at Tápióbicske.
Panic broke out, and the soldiers began to flee. The troops of the incoming III (Damjanich) Corps saved the situation by driving off the brigades belonging to Jelačić's corps.[102]
Fearing that the unexpected Battle of Tápióbicske had revealed his plans to Windisch-Grätz, Görgei directed his troops towards Isaszeg without delay.[102] However, the Battle of Isaszeg on April 6 did not bring the expected success. Although the Hungarian troops had the upper hand, the commander of the VII Corps was waiting at Bag. Thus, an attack from two directions and a possible encirclement of Windisch-Grätz's army could not be carried out.[102] The II Corps (Wrbna) did not participate in the battle on the Austrian side.[102] Ultimately, Görgei's troops pushed the main Austrian army to Pest and took control of the Danube–Tisza interfluve.[111]
Operation to Relieve Komárom
[edit]The day after the Battle of Isaszeg, a council of war was held in Kossuth's presence to discuss future actions.[112] According to the agreed-upon plan, the Hungarian troops would advance on Vác, relieve the Komárom fortress, cross the Danube, and encircle the main Austrian force. The II (Aulich) Corps and a detached division were left to guard Pest and draw Windisch-Grätz's attention.[112]
From April 8 to 9, the I (Klapka) and III (Damjanich) corps marched toward Vác, followed by the VII (Gáspár) corps. On April 10, the Götz Division of the Austrian II (Wrbna) Corps confronted the Hungarian I and III Corps in the First Battle of Vác but was unsuccessful.[112]
Götz was taken prisoner and died the next day from wounds received in battle.[113] After crossing the Garam River on April 19, the main Hungarian army routed the Austrian IV Corps, which had been sent from Austria just days earlier, in the Battle of Nagysalló.[112]
Meanwhile, Windisch-Grätz was relieved of his command after suffering repeated failures and being deceived by General Lajos Aulich for many days into believing that the main Hungarian army was in front of Pest.[112] Field Marshal Ludwig von Welden was appointed his successor. Upon realizing that the main Hungarian army was not in front of Pest, the new commander-in-chief ordered the evacuation of the capitals. He sent the I (Jelačić) Corps to southern Hungary to assist the Austrian and Serbian troops. He ordered the II (Wrbna) and III (Schlik) Corps to retreat toward Komárom.[112] However, Buda Castle had been considerably reinforced. Its garrison had been ordered to defend it at all costs.[112]
On April 23, meanwhile, Görgei marched into Komárom and lifted the nearly four-month siege. There was no bridge across the Danube, though, so the troops could not begin crossing until the early hours of the 26th.[112] After crossing the river, in the First Battle of Komárom, two Hungarian corps successfully drove off the forces surrounding the fortress from the south. The Austrian main forces, retreating from the capital, arrived at this time and ensured the retreat of the Imperial troops toward Vienna.[112]
Thus, in less than a month, General Artúr Görgei's Hungarian main army had forced the Austrian Imperial and Royal Army to evacuate Central and Western Hungary and retreat to the vicinity of Vienna.[112]
Impact of the Declaration of Independence on the War of Independence
[edit]In response to the Imperial Constitution, which abolished Hungary's independence on March 5, the
Hungarian Parliament proclaimed the country's independence on April 19 in Debrecen. They also declared the dethronement of the House of Habsburg-Lotharingia. Kossuth was elected governor, and the government led by Bertalan Szemere took over the role of the dissolved OHB.[112]
However, many generals disagreed with the Declaration of Independence, and many resigned. Lázár Mészáros, who had resigned several times before, and General András Gáspár, commander of the VII Corps, refused to serve as war minister.[92]
Kossuth saw Görgei as the most suitable person to serve as the new government's military secretary. However, as Görgei was also the commander-in-chief, he had to be substituted in the government sitting in Debrecen.[92] First, Damjanich was appointed, but after he broke his leg in an accident, Klapka took over the post.[92] To replace the commanders who left, General József Nagysándor was appointed commander of the I Corps, General Károly Knezić was appointed commander of the III Corps, and Colonel Ernő Poeltenberg was appointed commander of the VII Corps.[92]
Liberation of Buda
[edit]Following the Battle of Komárom, Görgei convened a council of war to decide on the next objective of the campaign. After a lengthy discussion, they chose the latter of the two possible objectives: Vienna or Buda.[92]
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Following the Council of War's decision, the Hungarian main started the Siege of Buda. Only two divisions of the Poeltenberg Corps were directed to Győr to monitor the Austrian troops.[92] The main Hungarian force arrived under Buda on May 4. The army commanders expected the obsolete castle to fall within a few days or perhaps even surrender in the face of a successful show of force.[92]
However, it soon became clear that the fortified castle, with its 5,000-strong defensive force led by General Heinrich Hentzi, could hold out for a long time.[92] After the first few days, it also became evident that the army's field artillery was incapable of demolishing the walls—a prerequisite for capturing the castle. Görgei ordered General Richard Guyon, the commander of Komárom Castle, to provide the necessary artillery.[92] At the same time, the necessary technical work began. The siege battery deployed against the southwestern side of the castle, which was under constant artillery fire and subject to mock attacks demolished a section of the wall.[92] The first assault failed, so they continued to shell the castle. The next assault, scheduled for dawn on May 21, finally succeeded.[92] The capital of the country was once again in Hungarian hands, and Hentzi died of his wounds.[114]
Fights during May in Transylvania and Southern Hungary
[edit]Fights with the Romanians in the Western Carpathians
[edit]Following General Bem’s victories, Romanian insurgents under Avram Iancu retreated to the Western Romanian CarpathiansWestern Carpathians but still posed a serious threat with 70,000 armed men. [4] Attempts at truce failed after Imre Hatvani entered with Hungarian militias into Abrudbánya on 6 May. [115] Fighting followed, as a result of which Hatvani was forced to retreat and Romanian forces massacred 5,000 Hungarian civilians.[116] Between May 16-19, Hatvani repeated his attack, but with the same results.[117] But when, on 30 May Avram Iancu tried to break out from the Mountains, the Hungarians defeated him at Gyulafehérvár. [2]
Joint operations of Perczel and Bem in Bánát
[edit]In May, the Austrian corps, which had been driven out of Transylvania, tried to attack again from Wallachia against Bánát, and Bem directed his troops there.
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Then, in May, Perczel and Bem jointly drove the Serbian and Austrian armies, led by General Malkowski, out of the Bánát.[118]
The V Corps laid siege to the Castle of Arad, a key fortress in Bánát, as well as to Temesvár. Major preparations for the siege began in December 1848 with the appointment of Colonel Miklós Gaál.[106] However, progress was slow. In April, General Károly Vécsey took command of the V Corps.[106] Vécsey isolated the fortress on all sides and kept its defenders on edge with constant artillery fire. However, the corps lacked the necessary resources for the siege.[106] Temesvár ostromáról.
From April to May of 1849, Hungarian successes pushed back Serbian and Austrian troops into the Syrmia region, leaving all territories in Bács and Banat, except for Arad and Temesvár, in Hungarian hands.[119]
Hungarian successes on other fronts
[edit]On 24 March, Colonel Lajos Beniczky’s 450-strong detachment surprised Austrian troops in Losonc, forcing them to flee and misleading Windisch-Grätz into thinking a major Hungarian force was heading to Komárom. [120]
This led the latter to divert troops to Vác, aiding Görgei’s April offensive and making the Raid on Losonc a key tactical victory. [120]
In April 1849, Colonel Lajos Beniczky continued his northern campaign, capturing Rimaszombat, Szepesváralja, and Eperjes. [120] Meanwhile, Major Ármin Görgey liberated key mining towns - Selmecbánya, Körmöcbánya, and Varin - defeating Austrian and Slovak forces.[121] Together, their small detachments secured central Upper Hungary. [121] In the northeast, Hungarian troops faced Austrian raids from Galicia. A Hungarian victory in the Battle of Podhering on 22 April prevented the Austrians to break into Transcarpathia. [122]
Southern Transdanubia had been under Austrian occupation since winter 1848–49. [123] With regular troops deployed elsewhere, Kossuth authorized Gáspár Noszlopy to lead a popular uprising in Somogy County. Starting with just 35 volunteers on 19 April, Noszlopy's movement quickly grew, liberating Kaposvár on 1 May and most of Somogy. [124] He won key engagements against the local Austrian and Croatian troops, like the Battle of Barcs, [125] then expelled imperial forces from Nagykanizsa. [126] He conscripted military units, including the 127th Honvéd Battalion, founding even some cannons. [127] By late May, Southern Transdanubia was largely liberated, except Baranya County, held by Jelačić’s corps. [128]
Results of the Spring Campaign
[edit]By the beginning of March, the Hungarian army controlled only the eastern territories of Hungary, including the areas behind the Tisza and Maros rivers and the Eastern Carpathians. They controlled only one-third of the country. By June 14, however, all of Hungary was liberated except for Croatia, the Syrmia region, the Central Transylvanian Mountains, a strip of land along the Austrian border, and the fortresses of Gyulafehérvár, Arad, and Temesvár. This expansion nearly tripled their initial territory, from approximately 95,000 km² to around 250,000 km². It was an extraordinary success for an army that did not exist a year prior, achieved against the second-largest empire in Europe.[129]
Summer Campaign
[edit]General situation and balance of power
[edit]The Austrian government was forced to seek outside help because of the unfavorable developments in Hungary. This resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Warsaw, in which Tsar Nicholas I of Russia agreed to provide military assistance to suppress the Hungarian War of Independence.[130] Following this commitment, in June 1849, 4 Russian corps—3 from Galicia and one from Moldavia—and other smaller troops, totaling approximately 200,000 men and 600 guns, were assembled under the command of Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich Erivansky to cross the Hungarian border.[130]
Several important changes occurred in the Austrian army during June, the most significant of which was the appointment of Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau as Commander-in-Chief.
Haynau directly commanded 4 corps and a separate Russian division, as well as the Southern Army under Field Marshal Jelačić and the Transylvanian Corps under Lieutenant General Eduard Clam-Gallas in Moldavia.[130] This force consisted of 180,000 men and 605 guns.[130] They were also assisted by some 70,000 Romanian militias led by Avram Iancu. [131]
The two armies operated independently of each other. Their main plan was to occupy Pest as quickly as possible.[130] The Austrian troops advanced along the Győr-Komárom-Pest line, and the Russian troops advanced along the Kassa-Miskolc-Pest line. A Russian division in northern Hungary was tasked with maintaining the connection. Transylvania was to be occupied by the Russian and Austrian corps in cooperation, while Jelačić's corps in southern Hungary was allowed to operate independently.[130]
Hungarian troops were reorganized after the liberation of Buda.[132] Görgei's main army consisted of four corps and some detachments and was supported by the VIII Corps, which formed Komárom's garrison. A northern army under the command of Generals Dembiński and later Józef Wysocki consisted of a corps and a division. In addition to Bem's Transylvanian army and the southern army commanded by General Antal Vetter, the Hungarian command had a reserve corps stationed in Szeged.[132] The army numbered 160,000 men and 450 guns.[132] So, this Hungarian national army faced a combined army of two empires of 380 000 men and 1205 guns, and also 70,000 armed militias.
Fights between the main armies
[edit]Attack of the main Austrian army
[edit]Several plans were made for the objectives and tasks set for the Honvéd army.[132] Görgei decided to attack the Austrians as quickly as possible.
According to his plan, the Poeltenberg Corps would remain in Győr while the rest crossed the Vág and advanced on Nagyszombat.[132] The Hungarian troops fought in several battles: on June 9 at Szered,[133] on June 13 at Csorna,[134] and on June 16 at Zsigárd.
[135] From June 20 to 21, they faced the main enemy forces at Pered. The first day of the battle went well for the Hungarian troops. The II (Asbóth) Corps captured Pered, and other Hungarian troops took Királyrév. However, the next day's battle was less successful due to a lack of coordination between the corps. The arrival of the Russian Panyutyin Division ultimately decided the battle in favor of the Austrians.[132]
After the Battle of Pered, Haynau redeployed his troops to the right bank of the Danube. On June 28, Haynau’us main army defeated Poeltenberg's corps in the Battle of Győr.[132] Kmety's division was also defeated in the Battle of Ihász and forced to retreat.[136] Haynau's army continued advancing but was stopped by Görgei's troops, who were half their size, in the Second Battle of Komárom on July 2.[132] However, Görgei was wounded in the head during this battle, preventing him from personally leading his troops in the Third Battle of Komárom on July 11.[132] The Hungarian army's goal in the latter battle was to clear the way for the main army to reach the junction of the Tisza and Maros rivers, where the government had decided all Hungarian troops should retreat. This battle was lost by the Hungarians.[132]
Conflict between Kossuth and Görgei
[edit]Although Kossuth and Görgei briefly reconciled in April 1849,
tensions soon resurfaced over political decisions, especially the Declaration of Independence. [137] Görgei believed that this had provoked the Russian invasion. Görgei opposed Kossuth’s policy and even considered using the army to reverse the declaration. [137] Meanwhile, Görgei's divided duties as both Minister of War and commander led to defeats at Zsigárd and Pered. [137]
On 26 June, Görgei proposed concentrating troops around Komárom to defeat Haynau’s forces before the Russians arrived. [138] However, on 29 June, the Council of Ministers overruled him — without informing him — and decided to concentrate forces in Szeged, abandoning other regions. Görgei disagreed, but verbally accepted the order. [139] A misunderstanding with Kossuth led the latter to believe that Görgei had defied the command, resulting in Görgei’s dismissal and the appointment of General Mészáros as his replacement.[139] However, the military commanders opposed this decision and forced Kossuth to reinstate Görgei as commander of the Army of the Upper Danube until the troops arrived in Szeged. [137]
Fighting in Northern Hungary against the Russian main army
[edit]The failed attempt to break through at Komárom meant the only route to southern Hungary was along the left bank of the Danube.[132]
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However, the area was under Russian control by then.
With no other choice, Görgei moved his troops eastward along the Danube on July 12.[140] Before leaving, though, he thoroughly reinforced the garrison at the Komárom Fortress.[132] As the Hungarian army marched toward the rendezvous point, on 15 July it stumbled on the Russian main force, led by Paskevich.[132] The two forces fought an inconclusively in the Second Battle of Vác from July 15 to 17. Since Paskevich's army blocked the southern route through the Danube-Tisza Interfluve, Görgei had to choose a new one: the Losonc–Miskolc–Debrecen route.[132] This meant the three Hungarian corps had to march behind the Russian troops toward the Tisza River, threatening their supply line.[141] This maneuver forced Paskevich to abandon his plan to march to southern Hungary and pursue Görgei instead.[142] After winning several smaller battles against the numerically superior Russian troops (for example the Battle of Gesztely), Görgei reached Miskolc on July 22.[143] He crossed the Tisza on July 28 and continued toward Arad. On August 2, Paskevich defeated the 1st (Nagysándor) Corps, which was executing a flanking march, in the Battle of Debrecen.[144] However, this did not significantly hinder Görgei's army, which reached Arad on August 9, several days before the Russians.[144] This created an opportunity for Görgei's army to unite with the armies from southern Hungary and defeat Haynau.[145]
Loss of Transylvania
[edit]In mid-June, the combined Russian and Austrian troops entered Transylvania.[144]
The main Russian force advanced south through the Tömös Pass toward Brassó, while the secondary force advanced northeast toward Beszterce.
Austrian Lieutenant General Clam-Gallas attempted to link up with the main Russian force, led by General Alexander von Lüders, through the Vöröstorony Pass.[144] The Russians captured Brassó on June 22 and Nagybánya on June 27.[144]
Bem initially tried to resist at Beszterce, but realized the greater threat came from the south and hurried there.[144] On July 20, Bem forced Clam-Gallas to retreat from Háromszék.[144] After a brief incursion into Moldavia, where he surprised the Russian troops stationed there, Bem was defeated by Lüders in the Battle of Segesvár on July 31.[144] In this battle, the Hungarian national poet, Sándor Petőfi, was killed.[146] Following the battle, Bem marched south and he drove back the Russian forces in the Third Battle of Nagyszeben on August 5.[144] The next day, however, he was decisively defeated in the Battle of Nagycsűr.[144] He then left Transylvania for Temesvár.[147]
Operations in Southern Hungary
[edit]In the south, the arrival of Jelačić's corps from Buda turned the tide in favor of the Austrians.[148] After reorganizing his troops, the Croatian ban crossed to the left bank of the Danube in early June. Following his victory in the Battle of Káty on June 7, Jelačić surrounded Pétervárad, entered Bácska, and burned Újvidék.[148] However, his successful advance ended with a major setback on July 14. On that day, he attacked Guyon's corps, but in the Battle of Kishegyes he was defeated.[148] Jelačić then retreated first to the Titel Plateau and then back to the right bank of the Danube.[148]
Meanwhile, the V Corps besieging the Austrian fortresses in Bánát forced Arad to surrender on July 1. However, Vécsey's troops could not capture Temesvár.[148]
Klapka’s counterattack at Komárom
[edit]After the departure of the main army on 12 July, General György Klapka remained in Komárom to defend it. [149] On 30 July, then on 2 August, the defenders made sorties, and in the Fourth Battle of Komárom, Klapka broke the Austrian siege, routing them, inflicting over 2,000 casualties, and capturing their supplies and many guns. [150] This final major Hungarian victory allowed Klapka to advance to Győr, disrupting imperial communications. The victory sparked a revolt in Székesfehérvár. [151] But these came too late.
Surrender
[edit]In July, rapid organization of the army was carried out in the Tiszántúl region.
At the end, General Dembiński was appointed commander-in-chief. He united his troops with the Army of the South in Szeged, a fortified position, to prevent Haynau from crossing the Tisza River.[144]
However, after the Austrian troops arrived, Dembiński inexplicably evacuated Szeged.[144]
On August 5, Haynau crossed the Tisza and attacked Dembiński's troops in the Battle of Szőreg, but the latter did not put up prolonged resistance there either.[144] Contrary to Kossuth's orders to go to Arad and await Görgei's army, Dembiński directed his army toward Temesvár.[144] He probably intended to continue marching toward the Turkish border from there. On August 9, Bem took command from Dembiński and immediately attacked the Austrian main force. However, the Battle of Temesvár on August 9 resulted in the complete collapse of the Hungarian army.[144] This was partly because Dembiński had sent the artillery's ammunition wagons toward Lugos before the battle.[152] Following this decisive defeat, Görgei's army of fewer than 30,000 men became the largest remaining Hungarian army. However, it could not change the disastrous situation.[144] The only option left to Görgei, who had been invested with dictatorial powers, was to surrender.[144] This occurred on August 13 in the Surrender at Világos (Szőlős).[153] After that, the remaining Hungarian troops (corps, divisions, and brigades) surrendered one by one, primarily to the Russian armies.[154] The fortresses then surrendered one after the other, with Komárom being the last to evacuate between the 2nd and 4th of October.[144]
Evaluation of the War of Independence
[edit]Despite early weaknesses, the Hungarian army performed admirably in the 1848 autumn campaign, thanks in part to Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány's military reforms.[155] Although the Hungarians faced superior numbers, they used defensive tactics effectively and exploited enemy mistakes—particularly those of Ban Jellačić.[155] Strategic victories achieved by forcing enemy troops to surrender, like at Székesfehérvár (October 3) and Ozora (7 October) demonstrated the army’s growing capabilities, though logistical and tactical flaws remained, and the determination of the poorly trained national guards and untrained militias, who all took a part in these actions.[156]
The 1848–49 winter campaign posed major challenges.[157] The Hungarian army suffered repeated defeats due to lack of coordination and centralized command.[157] Yet, no single loss proved fatal, and commanders like Bem and Görgei were able to recover from setbacks.[158] Critical moments in December, January, and early February threatened collapse but were averted through counterattacks and enemy disorganization.[159] Still, Hungary lost key fortresses such as Buda, Lipótvár, and Eszék.[159]
In the 1849 spring campaign, Hungary regained much of the territory lost earlier.[160] Though the enemy still held some strongholds, key successes—including the recapture of Buda—boosted Hungarian morale.[160] The Austrian army repeatedly failed to capitalize on its advantages, largely due to rigid command structures, while Hungarian leadership proved more flexible.[160] Still, the Hungarian army could not cause a decissive defeat to the enemy.[160] Historians still debate whether, after the victory at Komárom on April 26, the Hungarian forces should have besieged Buda or advanced toward Vienna.[161] Despite all of this, the success of the Hungarian offensive was remarcable considering the fact that one of Europe's strongest military forces, the Austrian imperial army, was forced to retreat from almost all Hungary, although it was numerically superior on every front.[160]
The summer campaign highlighted the Hungarian army’s growing professionalism.[162] Görgei's and Bem's operations often surprized the Austrians and Russians, causing them setbacks.[162] However, despite tactical successes, the overwhelming numerical and logistical superiority of Russian and Austrian forces proved decisive.[163] Political interference and the appointment of weaker commanders led to the final defeat at Temesvár.[163]
Ultimately, Austria could not have won without Russian intervention.[164] The Hungarian army, a creation of 1848, managed to defend national sovereignty for over a year against superior forces.[164] Though independence was lost, the war laid the foundation for Hungary’s eventual autonomy within the Habsburg Empire after 1867.[164]
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