Draft:Hargeysian culture

The Hargeysian (also spelled as Hargeisia or Hargeysien) represents the earliest known archaeological culture of the prehistoric Stone Age period in Somalia. Centered primarily in the Hargeisa Valley (Dooxada Hargeysa) in northwestern Somalia (modern-day Somaliland), this culture emerged during the Lower Paleolithic period, placing it among the earliest and oldest known cultural developments in the Horn of Africa and Eastern Africa. It was one of the most significant Paleolithic cultures on the continent and is believed to be the first known Stone Age culture in Africa (prior to the 20th century). The modern nation of Somalia has been inhabited since the Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period. But during the Paleolithic period, the rise of new hunter-gatherer societies emerged in northwestern Somalia—both along the coast and within the inland plateau of the modern Somaliland region (a de facto independent country, though internationally recognized as part of Somalia). This era witnessed the development of early forms of social and cultural structures, marking the beginnings of organized human activity in the country.

Hargeisa valley

An overview of the Al Madow (Cal Madow) mountain range, part of the Ogo Highlands in the Hargeisa Valley region.

The Hargeisa Valley is a highland basin situated within the Ogo Highlands, stretching from Ga’an Libah near the Guban coastal plain, and encompassing ranges such as the Golis, Karkaar, Cal Madow, Cal Miskad, and Shimbris—the latter home to the highest peak in Somalia. Archaeological remains of the Hargeysian culture have been found in the modern-day regions of Sahil, and Maroodi Jeex. Ecologically, the valley lies at the intersection of multiple biogeographical zones, including major rivers such as Bolgashan, Daco, Hembaweina, and the Issutugan (or Tssutugan) River—all of which are now seasonal and largely dried up. These rivers once formed part of the ancient hydrological network of the region and are considered tributaries of the Togdheer River, forming a transitional corridor between the mountain highlands and the Haud Plateau to the south, and the Nugaal Valley to the east. These diverse landscapes provided early human populations with access to freshwater, wild game, and lithic resources. In particular, areas such as Cal Madow are not only ecologically rich—featuring unique and endemic plant species but also geologically significant, containing abundant stone materials such as quartzite, basalt, and flint, which were ideal for tool-making. This made the Hargeisa Valley an important center for prehistoric human settlement and technological innovation.

The unique flora of Cal Madow in the Ogo Highlands of the Hargeisa Valley

The Hargeysian stone tool industry was defined by early flake and core technologies, reflecting a localized lithic tradition that emerged independently within the valley. Over time, this culture expanded into eastern Ethiopia (Somali Region) and northeastern Somalia (Puntland), where distinct Hargeysian tools have been identified. These implements represent some of the earliest evidence of human technological activity in the region and were produced by early Homo species. The tools, typically fashioned from locally sourced quartzite and basalt, were primarily used for cutting, scraping, and processing plant and animal materials. Stratigraphic evidence from various sites suggests a long period of technological continuity, indicating that the Hargeysian tradition was both adaptive and resilient across changing environmental conditions during the Paleolithic period. The Hargeysian culture endured through the Lower Paleolithic and into the Mesolithic period, disappearing just before the onset of the Neolithic period. Alongside the Doian culture of the Nugaal Valley, the Hargeysian forms one of Somalia’s foundational prehistoric civilizations, and marks the first known emergence of stone tool production in the Somali Peninsula.

Palaeolithic Origins and the Emergence of the Hargeysian Culture

Early Human Presence in Somalia

An illustration depicting the Hargeysa Valley and the mountainous cliffs of the Berbera countryside, along with the four rivers flowing through the valley by Seton karr in 1896, originally published in

The Paleolithic period (Old Stone Age) marks the earliest known phase of human activity in Somalia, characterized by the emergence of hunter-gatherer societies and the development of stone tool technology. Hominins such as Homo erectus and homo habills inhabited northern somalia as early as the Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period. While prehistoric habitation was widespread across present-day Somalia, it was in the northern coastal and interior regions ( modern day Puntland and Somaliland) that some of the oldest tool-making traditions in the Horn of Africa first emerged. One of the earliest documented investigations into Somalia’s Paleolithic past was conducted by Scottish explorer and amateur archaeologist Heywood Walter Seton-Karr (1859–1938). During his 1896 expedition to the Berbera, then under British colonial administration, Seton-Karr discovered numerous flint tools resembling Paleolithic hand axes previously found in Europe. These artefacts were presented to British archaeologist Sir John Evans, who affirmed their similarity to tools from Old World Paleolithic sites in France and England, thus supporting early theories that Africa was central to understanding human origins. The earliest known prehistoric culture in Somalia is represented by finds from the Lower Palaeolithic period, specifically linked to the Oldowan stone tool industry. This industry is associated with some of the earliest hominin species, including Homo erectus. A particularly significant discovery was made at Issutugan, near modern-day Hargeisa, where a bifacial chopper tool was uncovered. Dated to between 2.6 million and 1.7 years ago, this artifact was recovered by Seton-Karr during his archaeological explorations in northern Somalia. Now housed in the Letchworth Museum, the tool is composed of pinkish, quartz-rich sandstone, carefully worked to provide a functional cutting edge. It is the oldest known artifact from Somali soil. The discovery at Issutugan provides critical evidence that early hominins inhabited Somalia far earlier than previously assumed, reinforcing the Horn of Africa’s central role in the broader narrative of early human evolution.

The Jalleelo Site and the Discovery of Somali Hand Axes

Following his discoveries near Berbera, Seton-Karr extended his search inland to a location known as Jalleelo (also spelled Jallelo), located roughly midway between Berbera and Hargeisa. There, he uncovered dozens of perfectly preserved stone hand axes along the eroded banks of the Issutugan River. In his 1901 publication in Man, the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Seton-Karr famously declared:

“I have now run palaeolithic man ‘to earth’ in tropical Africa, so far as I know for the first time.”

Though not found in a formal stratigraphic context, the Jalleelo hand axes resembled Acheulean-style bifacial tools from European sites like Abbeville (France) and Hoxne (England). Unlike European sites that yielded tools buried alongside extinct megafauna, the Somali artefacts were discovered in surface contexts, likely exposed by erosion. Nevertheless, their typology aligned with Acheulean industries attributed to Homo erectus, with similar tools in Africa dated between 1.7 million and 40,000 years ago.

Seton-Karr concluded that Jalleelo was not merely a site of discarded tools but a prehistoric workshop, where stone tools were manufactured in situ for barter or exchange. The tools were unused, unweathered, and concentrated in a small area. He attributed the site's suitability to the availability of raw materials such as quartzite and chert, access to groundwater in dry riverbeds, and stable environmental conditions.

Classification of Paleolithic Industries: Hargeysian and Doian

Although Seton-Karr was unable to classify the tools into distinct prehistoric cultures at the time, later archaeological research identified two major Paleolithic industries in Somalia: the Hargeysian and the Doian. The Hargeysian culture (or Hargeisan) thrived in northwestern Somalia, particularly in the fertile Hargeisa Valley and the vicinity of Berbera and Jallelo. Its primary tool industry is now associated with the Oldowan tradition, characterized by flaked stone tools used by early Homo habilis and Homo erectus populations. The Oldowan industry, spanning roughly 2.9 million to 1.7 million years ago, represents the earliest known human tool technology.

In contrast, the Doian culture (or Doianian) was centered in the Nugaal Valley. The Doian industry is linked to the Acheulean tradition, known for its large, oval, and teardrop-shaped hand axes. These more advanced tools reflect a technological shift associated with Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis, and have been dated elsewhere in Africa to between 1.7 and 0.15 million years ago. Although these two industries were not recognized during Seton-Karr’s time, modern archaeology has since distinguished them by their tool types, geographic ranges, and technological sophistication.

Legacy of Seton-Karr and the Somali Paleolithic Record

Seton-Karr’s discoveries at Jalleelo, Berbera, and the broader Hargeisa Valley region were among the earliest African findings to be compared seriously with European Paleolithic tools. His work helped shift 19th-century archaeological thinking away from a Eurocentric model of human origins toward one that acknowledged Africa’s central role in prehistory. The tools he collected were exhibited at the Royal Archaeological Institute in London in 1897 and later housed in institutions such as the British Museum and the Australian Museum in Sydney. Seton-Karr’s observations about tool condition, site function, and production techniques contributed to the foundation of Somaliaa's prehistoric archaeology. In the words of Sir John Evans, the Somali hand axes formed:

“The most important link in the evidence for the universality of Paleolithic times between east and the west.”

As a result, Somalia emerged as a key region in the global narrative of early human evolution, technological innovation, and cross-regional cultural parallels during the Paleolithic period.

Later Period of Archaeological Research in Northern Somalia

Although Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti Cerulli is often cited as the first to document prehistoric stone tools in Somalia around 1880, it was the discoveries by Seton-Karr in the 1890s that sparked more systematic archaeological investigations in the region. However, comprehensive and academically rigorous research into Somalia's Stone Age cultures did not emerge until the 1940s. Between 1941 and 1946, the prominent British archaeologist J. Desmond Clark conducted an extensive archaeological expedition across the Nugaal Valley (in northeastern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia) and the Hargeisa Valley (in northwestern Somalia). His goal was to gain a deeper understanding of the emergence, development, and survival strategies of Somalia's earliest Stone Age societies particularly focusing on tool production, environmental adaptation, and subsistence methods. Following these expeditions, Clark published the landmark monograph: The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia (1954). This work remains one of the most comprehensive prehistoric analyses of the region. It details how climatic and geographic factors influenced the rise and spread of early hominin cultures in the Horn of Africa. The book offers a foundational understanding of the cultural and environmental evolution of prehistoric societies in Greater Somalia and the broader Horn region.Clark’s work is widely regarded as a pivotal contribution to African archaeology, anthropology, and historical geography, offering valuable insights into how early humans adapted to their surroundings through technological innovation and social organization.