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Charles (Chaim) Thau
Born(1921-07-07)7 July 1921
Zabolotiv, Poland (now Ukraine)
Died(1995-04-02)2 April 1995
Occupation(s)Shtetl teenager, Partisan, Unofficial Red Army conscript, Smuggler of DP Refugees, Auto mechanic/Business owner
Known forAppearing in the famous Elbe Day photograph, Appearing in Ha Bricha unit photo

Charles (Chaim) Thau

[edit]

Charles (Chaim) Thau (born 1921 in Zabolotiv,[1] Poland was a Jewish survivor of the Nazi occupation during World War II (WW2). [2] He survived by hiding in the forested Carpathian region, and conducting partisan activities, south and southwest of Zabolotiv for 19 months. Thau was eventually discovered by Soviet combatants and, without a formal conscription, became part of the Soviet military. He was assigned to the 58th Guards Rifle Division [3] of the 1st Ukrainian Front. Thau and his unit, which he subsequently was dual-hatted as translator, [4] and became both a Lieutenant and a commander of an anti-tank battery, were among the first to meet American forces during the historic crossing at the Elbe River [5] in April 1945, marking the first meeting between East and West in the waning days of the war. [6]

Der Speigel stated in their 25 April 2025 edition this event is made iconic in a famous photograph when seven soldiers came together agreeing to shake hands. [7] Thau is depicted as the translator, standing center-stage in front of the camera.[8]


Lt Charles Thau meeting Americans for the 1st time,but not the last (Center Facing Photographer)

CLICK here <r [9] for video description of re-enacted photo to the left (attribution: Dayton Daily News 24 April 2015)

According to a 1 May 1955 Milwaukee Journal article, containing authoritative content directly from their interview with Chaim Thau [10], he mentioned that after the Elbe River event it was off to Berlin. Both the above Milwaukee Journal interview, as well as Der Speigel, in their 25 April 2025 edition mentioned that in Berlin Chaim Thau was wounded in the upper jaw area during the heavy urban combat. [11] [12] Unaware a slug from the bullet remained lodged in his jaw, he unknowingly carried it there for over 5 years after WW2 ended.

Upon conclusion of WW2, Thau, went back to his pre-war shtetl in Poland and confirmed his father, mother and two brothers were murdered by the German Security police [13] and collaborating antisemitic Poles and Ukrainians. There was really nothing of his former home to return to, so he left.[14] He relocated to Salzburg and there he worked openly as a Displaced Person (DP) in a small auto garage as a mechanic.[15] [16] [17] However, Thau remained modestly quiet for decades about his more significant activities in Salzburg---that is, smuggling DP Jewish refugees over the Alps, and past the British-controlled mandate of Palestine. This was done secretly after he joined the clandestine Jewish underground known as " the Bricha" (Hebrew translated, "HaBricha" means "The Escape") [18].

After 3 years with the Bricha, he suddenly found himself fighting in a second war of his life, this time for Israeli statehood. [19] A few years later Chaim Thau immigrated to the United States in 1951 (then became Charles Thau) to build a new life. [20]

To paraphrase the image Der Speigel crafted in their 25 April 2025 edition, time and again, since late adolescence, Thau was met with the stark reminder of his own mortality at nearly every turn. [21]

Early Life

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Chaim Thau was raised in a small household in the shtetl of Zabolotiv, then part of eastern Poland. His family included his parents and two younger brothers, as noted in a 1955 Milwaukee Journal article that featured a direct interview with him. [10] They lived a traditional, agrarian Jewish life, sustaining themselves on a small farm. Thau’s mother also contributed to the household income by teaching languages—Yiddish, German, and Polish—from their home, which doubled as a schoolhouse.

A week before the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, Hitler signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact—a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, also known as the Hitler-Stalin Pact. The pact outlined spheres of influence in the event of hostilities with Poland. On 17 September, Stalin ratified the agreement and ordered Soviet forces into eastern Poland. As a result, Germany and the Soviet Union established a new border—the demarcation line, shown on the accompanying map—across former Polish territory and began implementing their joint plan to divide and occupy the country.[22] From 1939 to 1941, Thau’s home fell within the Soviet-controlled portion of the partition.

Thau's home was in the Soviet side of the partition from 1939-1941
Thau's home was in the Soviet side of the partition from 1939-1941

From 1939 to 1941, in Zabolotiv and other parts of eastern Poland, many inhabitants—both Jews and Gentiles—felt a sense of relief when the Red Army arrived and took control of local governments. According to Der Speigel 25 April 2025 edition, Chaim Thau’s family at first also had mutual sense of optimism. [23] Reactions often depended on one's economic and social standing; like many poorer Polish citizens in the region, they welcomed the Soviet forces for various reasons, though this sentiment would prove short-lived. This hopeful response was particularly evident in Zabolotiv, where the Thau family lived. [24]

Residents talking with a Red Army soldier, 1939

Some hoped the Soviets would protect their community from Nazi persecution, as they had already heard of the atrocities occurring in western Poland. [25] Others welcomed the Russians, believing they would end the discrimination they had faced under Polish rule and even saw them as liberators, hoping for better treatment from the Soviets. [26] [27]

It soon became evident that the Soviet authorities were making concerted efforts to integrate eastern Poland into the Soviet Union. One such policy, which had a life-saving impact on Chaim Thau, was the replacement of Polish with Russian as the primary language. Although specific details about the schools in Zabolotiv during this period are scarce, it is likely that the Soviet educational reforms applied across Eastern Europe were also implemented in Zabolotiv, including the introduction of Russian as the primary language of instruction in local schools [28]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Jewish community of Zabolotiv engaged in various trades, including leasing alcohol production rights, money lending, and artisanal crafts. These business dealings with Polish and Ukrainian neighbors made knowledge of their languages essential. Additionally, German was commonly used for business and administrative purposes.[29] Zabolotiv’s strategic location—at the crossroads of Polish, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian influences—further contributed to the prevalence of multilingualism. Thau, fluent in German, was also able to speak Russian, a skill he acquired during the two-year occupation of the region by the Red Army [30] His proficiency in German and Russian, in addition to Polish, Hebrew, and Yiddish, would later prove invaluable in saving his life. [31]

Before the Soviet occupation in 1939, small communities in Eastern Europe, such as Zabolotiv, did not have local police forces. Instead, law enforcement was handled by national or municipal authorities, such as the such as the State Police in Poland. [32] These communities typically relied on local watchmen or guards, who were responsible for maintaining order and preventing minor crimes. The guards were lightly equipped, usually carrying only clubs or batons. As a result, when armed Soviet soldiers arrived in 1939, many residents, including Chaim Thau, were suddenly exposed to firearms for the first time.

Over time, the Soviets imposed increasingly harsh authoritarian measures, which had a significant negative impact on the broader community. However, these effects were less pronounced on the small Thau family farm in Zabolotiv. As the initial optimism surrounding the Soviet arrival faded, many residents of local apartments were forcibly evacuated, and their homes were reassigned to Russian businesses and their workers. Meanwhile, commerce in the city stalled as local merchants lost their livelihoods, and several political activists were exiled to the Soviet Union. [33] [34] After the roughly two-year period of Soviet occupation (1939–1941), two key developments— the replacement of Polish with Russian in schools and the exposure to weaponry through armed Soviet soldiers— unintentionally provided Chaim Thau and others with critical skills that would prove vital when the Holocaust reached Zabolotiv

The Holocaust

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On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, breaking its non-aggression pact with Stalin and advancing eastward with Moscow as the ultimate objective.[35] Close behind the Wehrmacht, the SS and Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that operated alongside the German army—followed, often in direct coordination with it. [36] This group of over 4,000 members was tasked with mass murder in the occupied territories, primarily targeting Jews, but also Soviet commissars, Polish elites, intellectuals, and Catholic priests.[37]

As the Germans advanced eastward, a particularly brutal example of the Einsatzgruppen’s systematic massacres occurred in December 1941 in the Belarusian town of Nowogrodek, where most of the Bielski family was murdered. The three surviving Bielski brothers—Tuvia, Asael, and Zus—fled into the forest, where they would go on to form one of the largest and most successful Jewish partisan groups of the war. [38]

Although the implementation of anti-Jewish actions in Zabolotiv began in early December 1941, the Nazis’ systematic eradication of the town’s Jewish population unfolded over several months. Unlike in some other occupied areas,these massacres were not carried out solely by the Nazis, but also involved collaboration from local antisemitic Polish and Ukrainian inhabitants. At the end of 1941, approximately 2,700 Jews lived in Zabolotiv. By the close of that same December, around 1,100 of them had been murdered. [39] [33]

Jews being transported in German-occupied Poland, reflecting the Zabolotiv environment from 1941–1942.

Less than a year later, most of the remaining 1,600 Jews
were deported to death camps. (see photo to the right of Jews being forcibly deported by truck). In the end, only 5 of the original 2,700
Jews from Zabolotiv survived. [33] [39]

In early December 1941, as noted above, the Thau family faced imminent death. Chaim Thau was the only member of his family able to escape into the woods in time—much like the Bielski brothers.[40]. According to a 1955 article in the Milwaukee Journal, based on a direct interview with Thau,his father, mother, and two younger brothers were eventually murdered, along with nearly the entire Jewish population of their shtetl.[10] Thau, just 20 years old at the time, would spend the next 19 months—from December 1941 until July 1943—struggling to survive.

In the forests, Thau relied on his resourcefulness and knowledge of farming—unaware that he would survive this way for 19 months. He ravaged through nearby farmers' potato fields, using his understanding of the land to avoid detection while securing food. [41] Also, Thau scavenged whatever he could find in the forests themselves such as berries.[42] For shelter, he would secretly take refuge in a farmer's barn, constantly at risk of barking dogs or agitated livestock alerting the farmer to his presence.[43] [44]

Like many other Jews who survived by hiding, Thau unknowingly adopted similar survival strategies in the forest. These included alternative means of shelter, that is, by adapting to the natural terrain and using the dense woods to construct makeshift caves and winter dugouts for shelter. [44] [45] [46] [42] These rudimentary, cocoon-like shelters were typically dug into raised ground during the fall, before the earth froze, and were designed to blend seamlessly into the landscape. Tree limbs, branches, and mud provided insulation against the cold and helped keep the shelters hidden.

Chaim Thau conducted partisan activity in southern tip near Romania border

Thau eventually encountered a childhood friend who was also in hiding.[47] Together, they formed a small partisan team, taking what was necessary to survive near their hometown of Zabolotiv, close to the Romanian border (see map to the left) required for survival near their hometown of Zabolotiv not far from the Romania border.[42] [48] Thau’s fluent German proved to be a vital asset. According to the Der Speigel 25 April 2025 edition, and The Forward 22 April 2025 edition, after spending months of hiding in the wilderness, the one time Chaim Thau could clean himself up and, put on a confiscated SS officer’s uniform, he was able to convincingly pass as a German officer.[49] Then with his fluency in spoken German, he was able to walk into a nearby town to receive dental treatment and obtain food. [50]

Relying on the help of a few sympathetic farmers was a significant risk. [51] It required mutual trust—an extremely fragile bond that could be shattered with devastating consequences. Thau, like many other survivors hiding in the woods, came to understand the weight of this danger. For the farmers, discovery meant certain death; even letting a Jew sleep in their barn or sharing food could lead to execution if reported.[52] Some, despite this fear, quietly offered bread, water, or shelter. [53] Their fear was not unfounded—villages were covered in notices and placards, nailed to buildings and trees, warning that anyone aiding a Jew would pay with their life. Notices, posters, and placards were posted on village buildings and trees, warning the community that anyone who provided food or shelter to a Jew would pay with their own life.[54]

From Partisan to Soviet Forces

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Chaim Thau’s survival took a pivotal turn after 19 months when he and his partisan childhood friend were discovered by Soviet combatants. Thau was nearly shot, as the soldiers mistakenly believed he was a German collaborator or a deserting German officer, given his fluency in German, and attempting to blend in with the civilian population following the Wehrmacht’s continued retreat since Stalindgrad. [55] According to Der Speigel, 25 April 2025 edition, Thau was multi-lingual at that time, and as such, had to ability to speak not just multiple Jewish tongues, but Polish, Russian and German too. [49] Once the Russian combatants realized that, they released his partisan friend and unofficially conscripted Thau into their ranks as a translator. According to the German WDR5 radio broadcast, aired on 25 April 2025, the Red Army took him in because he could interpret, and he knew how to not only fight to survive, but to do so in the some of the most difficult conditions. [56] [57] [48] [58] This was a common practice as translators were in short supply across occupied Eastern Europe. [59] The Russians used willing partisans in translating and interrogating German POWs, particularly captured SS. [60] A similar supporting case, like that of Thau's experience, was another bilingual Jewish partisan also in hiding, Harry Burger, and was asked to join an armed militia as a translator for German prisoners.[61] Even without language skills, the Red Army conscripted civilians in newly occupied areas, often regardless of their health or background, especially in the latter years of the war. [62]

Thau’s multilingual abilities ultimately proved to be also important in an historic event. That is, Thau was later assigned to the 58th Guards Rifle Division of the 1st Ukrainian Front, serving in the unit that first met the Western Allies at the Elbe River. [63] Thau and his unit were among the first to reach the American forces, specifically the 69th Infantry Division (United States), at the Elbe River on 24 April 1945. This historic meeting between the Soviet and American forces symbolized the division of Nazi-occupied Europe at the end of World War II.

The Historic Elbe River Link-Up

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As the 69th Infantry Division approached the Elbe River from the west, the Soviet 58th Rifle Guard (part of the 1st Ukrainian Front) was also advancing, but from the east.[64] According to the 1955 Milwaukee Journal article conveying details of Thau's interview in 1955,[10],he recalled heavy fighting with a retreating German regiment that refused to surrender. Thau remembered that by the afternoon of that first day, the fighting had ended.

Both the Western and Eastern forces knew they were on the brink of meeting, and units of the 69th Infantry Division were conducting patrols along the Mulde and Elbe Rivers, watching for the advancing Red Army, and as a result, three separate elements made contact.[65] [66]

Although the leadership at Yalta had initially discussed and planned formal recognition of red and green signals flares to alert the other side they were friendly, this was close to happen, but never was fully executed. [67] [68]

In fact, it was reported there was a red flare launched by only the Russians, but the Americans had no green flare to reciprocate. Therefore, according to the German WDR5 radio broadcast, aired on 25 April 2025 for the 80th anniversary of the event, the actual 24 April 1945 encounter at the Elbe River near Torgau was complicated by no reciprocated flare by the Americans, so the Soviets laid fire toward the prominent Hartenfels Castle structure by the river. [69] Therefore, according to Lt Robertson, they instead quickly drove to pharmacy in Torgau to obtain colored chemical solution, and applied the colors on a white bed sheet to create a makeshift American flag. [70]

Lt Robertson then went to the town highest point, on a balcony of the prominent Hartenfels Castle, and hung the crude but effective US flag so it could be seen across the river, visually notifying the Red Army that Americans were on the other side of the river.[71] As the Americans noted, a few of the Russians laid fire upon the hanging American flag, believing it may be a similar trick they experienced by the Germans, but the Russians soon realized these were indeed Americans. [72]

In that same 1 May 1955 interview article by the Milwaukee Journal [10], Thau recalled that while they could see the Americans on the other side of the river, their first interaction was limited to waving and shaking hands, as most of the soldiers did not speak the same language. However, Thau’s knowledge of German helped him find a few German-speaking American soldiers from the 69th Infantry Division. Thau remembered exchanging pleasantries, along with cigarettes, vodka, and some puzzled looks. [73]

As the day progressed, a sense of relief spread among both the Eastern and Western forces. There was also an air of excitement, with much curiosity—especially regarding the female Red Army soldiers in skirts and armed with guns. [74]

By the end of the day, Thau’s memories were filled with images of laughing soldiers sitting on jeeps, comrades exchanging embraces, and people happily posing for photos in front of flags. [75] Even a US senior statesmen stated, 70 years later at a 2015 Russian conference about the linkup, how there was such clear mutual hopes represented by the soldiers at they toasted each other with liberated beer.[76]

The initial linkup on 24 April 1945, marked the first time Chaim Thau came face-to-face with American soldiers. [77] When he met German-speaking Americans, according to the 1955 interview by the Milwaukee Journal, and published on 1 May 1955, Thau said the German-speaking American soldiers shared with him how wonderful life was in the United States—a stark contrast to the strict, authoritarian structure of Russian life. On that historic day, the blended military units were sitting on jeeps laughing, posing in front of flags [78], and also exchanged "souvenirs," including uniform buttons, star emblems, and patches from each other’s uniforms.[79]

It wasn’t until the following day that the full significance of the event set in. Allan Jackson, the embedded journalist with the 69th Infantry Division, recognized that this linkup was historic, as it marked the first meeting between East and West at the fielded forces level. So the second day, after the soldiers had their fill of vodka and chocolate bars, according to the German WDR5 radio broadcast, aired on 25 April 2025 for the 80th anniversary of the event, Allan Jackson instructed a few soldiers to go and shake hands on the bridge.[80] Lt. Chaim Thau translated the same messages to three Russian soldiers, following Jackson's instructions. [81] [50]

Lt Charles Thau meeting Americans for the 1st time,but not the last (Center Facing Photographer)

Thau's involvement in this momentous event was captured in a famous photograph, in which he is seen at the center, facing the camera.[82] In the first of the two snapshots taken, Thau can be seen staring back at the photographer (and into the camera), while in the second snapshot, he seems to disappear as the three pairs of soldiers step closer to shake hands, blocking Thau from view. The film was immediately sent to the AP, and the iconic 1st snapshot appeared on the front page of the New York Times on 25 April 1945.[83]

With the photo sending such an iconic message that the war would be over soon, General Eisenhower ordered American forces to halt at the Elbe River, allowing the Red Army to continue on and seize the city of Berlin. [84][85] The Elbe River later became the dividing line between East and West Germany.[86]

After the reenacted photographs, the 58th Rifle Guard (including Lt. Chaim Thau) moved on to Berlin, where they participated in the intense street fighting of 1945, battling block by block. During this battle, according to the Der Speigel 25 April 2025 edition, Thau was wounded in the face and jaw by machine gun fire. This marked the second time in World War II that he was injured in combat.[12] Unknowingly, he carried a slug fragment from that Berlin machine gun wound in his cheek and jawbone for more than five years after the war. In his 1955 interview with The Milwaukee Journal, Thau mentioned that the slug remained in his cheek until a Milwaukee surgeon extracted it in 1951, leaving a scar that he bore for the rest of his life as a reminder of Berlin.[10]

Escape from Soviet Rule and Post-War Struggles

[edit]

After the war, Thau returned to his former home in Poland, only to discover that his family and friends had been murdered during the Nazi occupation.[87] As reported in the interview Thau had with the Milwaukee Journal on 1 May 1955, his plan was to escape the Soviets and make his way to Czechoslovakia, a journey not far from his former home. Unfortunately, as the Milwaukee Journal 1955 interview continued, Thau stated that he was arrested by the Czechs. However, when they learned he was deserting the Russians, they helped him acquire civilian clothes and continue his journey. Thau then joined other refugees on their way to Austria.[88]

The Bricha Unit of Chaim Thau, top row, 3rd from right
Chaim Thau is furthest right of those standing on auto circa 1946
Main Routes Used by Ha Bricha

Thau settled in Salzburg and worked part time as an auto mechanic. However, whether due to his modesty or the clandestine nature of the underground organization he secretly joined, Thau rarely spoke about his activities there even years later to reporters or his family. The secret organization was the Bricha, a covert smuggling unit taking Jewish refugees across the Alps from any of the 5 Salzburg area DP camps, then ferry to by-pass the British controlled area of pre-state Israel.[89] [90]. (Thau can be seen in his unit's leadership photo to the right, and to the left as one of 8 members of his Bricha unit on an auto. The routes taken by the various Bricha units are also shown on the left.)

Coming to America

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Following these wartime experiences, which included fighting in the 1948 Israeli Independence War, Thau stated that a 1 May 1955, Milwaukee Journal interview that he recalled the praise given by the 69th Infantry Division's German-speaking soldiers on the Elbe River bridge during the handshakes.[91] [10]

So Thau made the effort to do so, and according to Thau's personal Immigration Card Index, Immigration and Naturalization Service Records, and his interview with the Milwaukee Journal on 1 May 1955, Thau arrived in New York on 7 September 1951. This process required the assistance of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee at Camp Saalgelden near Salzburg, with travel funds provided to the Jewish Refugee Agency by a sponsoring lawyer in Sheboygan, Wisconsin, David Rabinowitz.[10]

Chaim Thau Traveled to America aboard the USS General MB Stewart, arriving 7 September 1951

According to the passenger list of the USS General M.B. Stewart, Thau was aboard the ship when it arrived in New York in 1951. This transport ship was reacquired by the Military Transportation Service under the auspices of the International Refugee Organization to support post-war resettlement efforts. [92]

New Life in Wisconsin

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The most reliable source regarding Thau's experiences during this time is that Milwaukee Journal interview from 1 May 1955. Now named Charles Thau, and after initially arriving in Sheboygan, Wisconsin and settling in Milwaukee, he became an auto mechanic and later the owner of several auto repair garages. There, he married his future wife, Ida, and together they raised two sons and a daughter. [10] Also noted in the same Milwaukee Journal interview on 1 May 1955, Thau mentioned the Berlin machine gun slug from 1945 that he unknowingly carried in his cheek for almost seven years, which was discovered in 1951. Thau stated that a Milwaukee surgeon removed the slug in 1951. For the rest of his life, he bore a scar on his upper lip resulting from the surgical incision needed to remove the slug. [10]

Thau seemed hesitant to release facts about his wartime experiences to his children, but did mentioned in the 1970s to his youngest son when he was in the US military, that Thau's Russian unit made photographic headlines as the first unit to meet the US military at the Elbe River, even though little was publicized about the photo in the US until 2010. That is when it was officially recognized in the U.S. and Russia when both countries’ presidents issued a joint commemorative statement.[93] [94] A host of other experiences Thau found difficult to share mostly due to their horrific nature. Albeit slowly, Thau let only a few of the harsh memories be known.

As time passed, Thau began to open up more and more and share some of his wartime experiences and resultant perspectives. Paraphrasing what the Der Speigel 25 April 2025 edition noted, his son remembers his father telling him to invest in a good education, because among other benefits, it's the only possession no one can takeaway, burn, destroy or confiscate from you.[95] Moreover, some of Thau's hesitancy to share from the past, which was clearly observed by the family, seemed to stem from his repeated life philosophy: "Don’t look backwards or you’re gonna bump into something." [93]

These perspectives helped Thau maintain his resilience and continue living a faithful Jewish life. He raised a family, took pride in being battle-tested, and faced adversity without showing visible stress. He remained steadfast in his commitment to move forward, live a righteous life, and serve as an example of perseverance until his passing in 1995.[96]


Legacy

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1. Famous Photograph: Thau's presence in the Elbe Day photograph remains one of the most iconic images of WWII.
2. Historical Documentation: His story has been covered in:

a. Der Spiegel (2025) - a weekly German news magazine,
b. The Milwaukee Journal (1955, 2015),
c. The Dayton Daily News (2015),
d. The Freie Presse (2015), a daily German newspaper in Saxony,
e. German Public Radio Broadcast (2025) (WDR - Westdeutscher Rundfunk) in Cologne Germany
f. The Forward (2025)- an historic Jewish American news outlet

3. Recognized by Scholars: His journey from Holocaust survivor and partisan to Soviet soldier, Jewish refugee smuggler and American immigrant highlights the complex experiences of Jewish survivors of WWII.

References

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  1. ^ "Zabolotiv". Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  2. ^ "The Faces of WW2 – Meet the Extraordinary People in 11 of the War's Most Famous Photographs, and scroll down to Hands Across the Elbe, 1st para, 5th line". 6 July 2017.
  3. ^ "58th Guards Rifle Division". Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  4. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 1 6th para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  5. ^ "History of The Fighting 69th Infantry Division Historic East Meets West—The American-Soviet Linkup". Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  6. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 1 5th para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  7. ^ Heinz, Joachim; Harmann, Markus (25 April 2025). "Handschlag von Torgau: Sieben Soldaten und ein Bild für die Ewigkeit (Seven Soldiers and an Image for Eternity, 1st page, 2nd paragraph])". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 25 April 2025.
  8. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 1 6th para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  9. ^ "video segment only from the Dayton Daily News April 2015, allowed as "Fair Use" by Cox Media, 70 years ago, a brief meeting of soldiers helps end a war". Dayton Daily News. 24 April 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "[Gas Station Operator Recalls US-Russ Union]". The Milwaukee Journal. 1 May 1955. p. 193.
  11. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 1 7h para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  12. ^ a b Heinz, Joachim; Harmann, Markus (25 April 2025). "Handschlag von Torgau: Sieben Soldaten und ein Bild für die Ewigkeit (Seven Soldiers and an Image for Eternity, 3rd page, 1st full paragraph])". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 25 April 2025.
  13. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 3 3rd and 4th para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  14. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 3 and 3rd para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  15. ^ Haynie, Oren (22 April 2025). "Hidden in a famous WWII photo, two heroic Jewish stories". The Forward. 7th paragraph, last line. Retrieved 23 April 2025.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  16. ^ "Dayton Daily News_ Spirit of the Elbe, 3rd full paragraph]". Dayton Daily News. 1 April 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  17. ^ "[78 Years Ago, a Brief Meeting of Soldiers Helps End a War, 3rd last paragraph]". Jewish American Warrior Magazine. 1 April 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  18. ^ "Habricha". 11 July 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  19. ^ Haynie, Oren (22 April 2025). "Hidden in a famous WWII photo, two heroic Jewish stories". The Forward. 24th paragraph, 2nd sentence. Retrieved 23 April 2025.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  20. ^ Wilms, Carolin (24 April 2015). ""Spirit of the Elbe" see page 3 3rd and 4th para". The Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  21. ^ Heinz, Joachim; Harmann, Markus (25 April 2025). "Handschlag von Torgau: Sieben Soldaten und ein Bild für die Ewigkeit (Seven Soldiers and an Image for Eternity, 2nd page, 1st full paragraph])". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 25 April 2025.
  22. ^ "Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact". Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  23. ^ Heinz, Joachim; Harmann, Markus (25 April 2025). "Handschlag von Torgau: Sieben Soldaten und ein Bild für die Ewigkeit (Seven Soldiers and an Image for Eternity, 2nd page, 2nd full paragraph])". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 25 April 2025.
  24. ^ "The Destruction of our Community As told by the survivors Tzvi Eizenkraft and Tzvi Freid second sentence 1st para". Retrieved 14 March 2025.
  25. ^ Pinchuk, Ben-Cion (1978). "Jewish Refugees in Soviet Poland 1939-1941". Jewish Social Studies. 40 (2): 141–158. JSTOR 4467001. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  26. ^ "Poland, Belarus & Ukraine Report: September 9, 1999". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 November 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  27. ^ "Soviet Occupation". Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  28. ^ "Sovietization of Western Byelorussia (1939-1941)". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  29. ^ "Jewish Galaicia". Retrieved 16 February 2025.
  30. ^ Haynie, Oren (22 April 2025). "Hidden in a famous WWII photo, two heroic Jewish stories". The Forward. Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  31. ^ Wilms, Carolin. "Handschlag für die Ewigkeit" [Handshake for Eternity] (PDF). Freie Presse (in German). Retrieved 15 March 2025. 6th column, 1st paragraph. Lieutenant Thau spoke five languages: Polish, German, Hebrew, Yiddish, and Russian.
  32. ^ "State Police (Poland)". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  33. ^ a b c "The Destruction of our Community". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  34. ^ "Jewish Galicia". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  35. ^ "Operation Barbarossa - WW2 Timeline". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  36. ^ "Einsatzgruppen, 4th paragraph, last line". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  37. ^ "Einsatzgruppen". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  38. ^ "The Bielski Partisans". Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  39. ^ a b "Jewish Towns in Ukraine- Zabolotiv, PAGE 4". Retrieved 5 April 2025.
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