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Conscription in Rhodesia

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Conscription played a significant role in the Rhodesian Bush War. The Rhodesian Security Forces relied on conscripts from the country's small white population as well as the coloured and Indian populations for much of their strength throughout the conflict. The great majority of the population, who were black, were exempt from conscription until shortly before the end of the war.

As the war continued and Rhodesia's situation deteriorated, requirements on conscripts were increased. This included longer periods of mandatory service as well as more frequent call ups of reservists. This placed a considerable burden on the white minority and partly motivated high rates of emigration. The declining white population further undermined Rhodesia's war effort and contributed to the transition to majority rule as Zimbabwe.

Background

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A map of Africa highlighting Rhodesia's borders in the south east of the continent
A map showing Rhodesia's location in Africa

Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing British colony located in southern Africa which had been founded by the British South Africa Company in 1890 and achieved self-government in 1923.[1][2] Its economy and government was controlled by the small white minority of its population.[1]

From 1962 the Southern Rhodesian government was led by the Rhodesian Front political party, with Ian Smith serving as Prime Minister from 1964 until 1979. This party was deeply committed to maintaining the white minority's privileged status, and this motivated a decision to declare independence from the United Kingdom rather than submit to a transition to majority rule.[3][4] Accordingly, the government issued Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom in November 1965, and the colony became Rhodesia.[5]

The number of white people in Southern Rhodesia increased from 82,000 in 1946 to 250,000 in 1965 due almost entirely to immigration from mainly English-speaking countries.[2] The white population was always less than 5 per cent of Rhodesia's total population.[6] Few of the white migrants to Rhodesia intended to settle permanently, with there being high rates of both immigration into and emigration from Rhodesia during most years of the country's existence. This meant that many members of the white population did not have strong feelings of loyalty towards Rhodesia as they had migrated there intending to take up specific opportunities before moving to another country.[7]

UDI and Rhodesia's racial inequalities led to the Rhodesian Bush War.[5][8] Guerrilla activities began in 1966, and mainly involved small groups operating in northern areas of Rhodesia. Until the early 1970s the Rhodesian Security Forces had little difficulty defeating the guerrillas.[9] Rhodesia's security situation deteriorated during the mid-1970s when the nationalists were able to establish bases in neighbouring Mozambique as Portuguese rule there faltered and finally ended in 1975. This led to a rapid growth in the insurgency which the security forces were unable to contain. By mid-1979 the Zimbabwe Rhodesia government was facing defeat and the war was costing 2,000 lives each month.[10] International pressure and a desire by all parties to end the fighting led to the Lancaster House Agreement, which was signed in December 1979. Rhodesia transitioned to majority rule and became independent as Zimbabwe in 1980.[11]

Conscription of whites and other minority groups

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Early years

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Conscription was introduced in Southern Rhodesia in 1957 as part of the 1957 Defence Act.[12] All young white men were required to undertake a period of service with the Rhodesia Regiment.[12][13] In 1960, when Southern Rhodesia formed part of the Central African Federation, Rhodesian conscripts were deployed to what is now northern Zambia in response to the Congo Crisis.[14] This crisis also led to the expansion of the Territorial Army, which was made up of conscripts who had completed their national service but remained liable for part-time service as reservists.[13]

At the time of Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in November 1965, white, coloured and Indian Rhodesian men were required to undertake six weeks of national service, during which they undertook basic training.[12][14] After completing this period of training, they were obliged to serve as reservists within the Rhodesia Regiment.[12]

Conscription during the Bush War

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The duration of active service was increased over time and the system was frequently changed. By 1972 all white men aged between 18 and 25 needed to undertake nine months training with either the Army or the police. They were then obliged to serve as reservists with the Territorial Army for three years and could be called up for active service.[14] From 1974 all non-African men aged between 18 and 25 who had not completed national service were barred from leaving Rhodesia.[15]

From the mid-1970s shortages of white manpower were seen by the Rhodesian government as being one of the main constraints on its war effort. The high proportion of white men who evaded conscription contributed to this; for instance, in 1973 half the eligible men who were called up managed to avoid serving in the security forces. Many white men also did not register for conscription and others did not report for duty when they were called up.[16] This led to multiple changes to reduce exemptions and options to defer military service. The security forces also lowered their medical standards over time.[16] Steps were taken to address draft dodging. This included granting military police the power to require that white men demonstrate that they were registered for national service, which came into effect in 1973.[17]

The manpower shortages also led to changes to the periods for which conscripts were required to serve and the eligible age ranges.[16] The amount of time conscripts could be called up for was expanded in 1975, after extensive public debate. Following these changes all white men aged 25-30 were initially required to serve for up to 59 days when called up for periods of active service. This was soon expanded to 84 days. White men aged 30-38 were obliged to serve for shorter periods.[14] Also in 1975, the 'grace period' in which new immigrants to Rhodesia were exempt from conscription was reduced from four years to two years.[15]

The conscription system was changed again in 1976. The period of compulsory service was first extended to a year, and then in late 1976 to 18 months.[14] Young men who were going onto university had to serve for 24 months as they were exempt from reserve duties during their studies.[18] The National Service Act was also amended in 1976 to ban boys aged 16 years and over from leaving Rhodesia until they had completed national service.[15] From 1977 national servicemen received a bonus payment if they volunteered for a further year of full-time service.[14]

At some stage all men aged 18-34 who had completed their period of national service became subject to "continuous call up" for the Territorial Army. From 1978 Territorials and police reservists aged under 38 were obliged to serve for up to 190 days annually. Men who were aged 38-49 were subject to up to 10 weeks service annually in blocks of up to two weeks; in practice though, only the men with the most military experience in this age group were required to perform active duty.[14] The initial training period for some national servicemen was also reduced from 1978.[19]

The Rhodesian Government considered ending the call up in 1978 and greatly expanding the professional Army, but this was not practical. In January 1979 the call up was further expanded when men aged 50-60 were required to serve as guards in cities.[20]

Conscription was retained by Prime Minister Robert Mugabe in the period immediately after the end of the Bush War and Rhodesia's transition to Zimbabwe. Mugabe considered it necessary "until the outstanding dissident element had been rounded up".[21] Conscription was subsequently abolished and as of 1983 the Zimbabwe National Army was made up entirely of volunteers.[22]

Police Reserve

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White men aged between 38 and 60 were required to serve with the British South Africa Police's Police Reserve force. Some younger conscripts who were judged to not be suitable for the Army were also posted to the Police Reserve. Farmers and men in certain other occupations also served in the Police Reserve rather than the Army.[12]

The Police Reserve had two components, 'A' Reserve and the Field Reserve. The 'A' Reserve undertook crime prevention tasks. The Field Reserve was mainly used to guard farms, key elements of infrastructure and protect convoys travelling by road. Field Reserve units were usually poorly trained, led and equipped.[12]

Conscription of black Rhodesians

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While many black Rhodesians served with the Rhodesian Security Forces, until the last months of the war this was strictly voluntary.[23] The Rhodesian Government considered conscripting black Rhodesians at various times, with serious proposals to do being put forward from around 1977.[24] There were concerns within the civil service and Army over doing so. This was due to concerns that many black men would refuse to serve and that some of those who were successfully conscripted would be loyal to the nationalists. The Army favoured conscripting blacks as they would be paid less than white soldiers and were likely to be just as effective in battle.[25]

Following the Internal Settlement and Rhodesia's short-lived transition to Zimbabwe Rhodesia, Prime Minister Abel Muzorewa decided in 1979 that black Rhodesians would be required to undertake national service.[23] This was regarded as necessary by white Rhodesians given the country was now in theory racially integrated and whites considered it unfair to be required to undertake national service if blacks were not.[26]

The black Rhodesians who were conscripted were posted to the Rhodesia Regiment and the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR).[27] The influx of personnel allowed a third battalion of the RAR to be formed in September 1979.[28] Some black Rhodesians were also forced to serve in the Security Force Auxiliaries from 1978.[29]

Impact

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Military impact

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Conscription allowed a significant expansion of the Rhodesian Army. The Rhodesia Regiment eventually comprised eight battalions with a total nominal strength of 15,000 men. Reservists also served in other units of the Army, including independent companies and the Army's support services.[12] The Army's regular units, including the elite Special Air Service, Selous Scouts and Grey's Scouts, also included elements manned by reservists.[12] The regulars who made up the majority of the Rhodesian Light Infantry treated conscripts who were posted to the unit with distain.[30]

From 1975 some reservists were posted to the newly created Guard Force. These were mainly young white national servicemen who had been assessed as being of low quality and elderly reservists. The Guard Force was responsible for the protected villages which the Rhodesian Government had forced many Africans to move into. The Guard Force received little training and its members often committed crimes against the residents of the protected villages.[19]

The Rhodesian Security Forces often did not make good use of conscripts. The Army struggled to find enough instructors to train reservists in the Rhodesia Regiment throughout the war, though standards in these units gradually improved. Reservists were often assigned to tasks that did not make good use of their skills.[19] By 1977 the security forces were struggling to administer the national service scheme and equip the large number of conscripts. The Police Reserve could provide less than half the number of conscripts it could call up with weapons, radios and transport vehicles and the Guard Force lacked the staff needed to administer regular call-ups. Many soldiers believed that the Army and the broader war effort were highly inefficient.[31]

For most of the Bush War, coloured and Indian reservists were paid less than their white peers and also experienced other forms of discrimination within the military. Their pay and conditions were equalised with white reservists towards the end of the war. This discrimination led to these men having low morale and being less effective than white soldiers. Most coloured and Indian reservists were initially posted to protection companies in the Army or served as drivers. From 1978 they were generally assigned to the Rhodesian Defence Regiment, making up most of its personnel (the remainder being low quality white personnel). This regiment was poorly trained and had a reputation for indiscipline.[19]

The fundamental limitation of the conscription system throughout the Bush War was a shortage of white manpower. This problem was made worse by high rates of emigration from Rhodesia.[32]

Social and economic impact

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The national service scheme was supported by most white Rhodesians. Parents typically expected their sons to undertake national service and draft dodging was seen as dishonourable.[33] These views were common across families with different political opinions, as national service was often seen as being in the interests of Rhodesia rather than the Rhodesian Front government or the cause of sustaining white minority rule.[34] Conscription was a major element in the lives of white Rhodesian men, with most serving in the security forces.[35]

Calling up young men for military service affected the Rhodesian economy. Firms and industry associations expressed strong concerns over the absence of young white men, including as they were often managers in factories.[33] This damaged the Rhodesian economy, which was also faltering for other reasons.[36]

As the military situation deteriorated for Rhodesia the demands on conscripts increased.[37] The increasing requirements of the security forces were seen as unreasonable and not in line with the expectations of white Rhodesian families.[36]

Conscription and emigration

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The increasing burden of conscription on white Rhodesian men as the war continued forced them to make a decision on remaining in Rhodesia or emigrating. Staying would involve more frequently being required to fight in a war that appeared lost.[38]

The Rhodesian government was aware that conscription was causing white men to emigrate from the country, and attempted to balance this against security force's needs.[32] All changes to national service requirements were debated within the government due to the impact they would have on emigration.[14] During the late 1970s emigration was usually discussed during meetings of the Manpower Committee. As one way of limiting the impact of conscription on emigration, in 1977 the Manpower Committee decided that the terms of military service should be obscured. This was only partly successful, as the increasing requirements continued to motivate white men to depart the country.[32]

The Rhodesian government also attempted to reduce the numbers of white men of military age who left country. In 1974 it became an offence for men to depart Rhodesia after being called up for service. At around this time, opportunities to travel or study outside of Rhodesia were also reduced and the Rhodesian government requested that South Africa extradite draft dodgers back to the country.[39] Later that year non-black Rhodesian men aged between 18 and 25 who had not completed national service were banned from emigrating. From 1976 the South African government began deporting some white Rhodesians for technical violations of immigration rules, though it publicly denied having a deal with Rhodesia to deny residence to white Rhodesians of military age.[15] From 1977 the sons of adults who were preparing to emigrate from Rhodesia were required to complete national service if they were called up before their parents completed the necessary paperwork to leave the country.[33] These restrictions on emigration led many white Rhodesians to feel like prisoners in the country, and encouraged them to leave when they could. The restrictions also reduced immigration into Rhodesia.[15]

During the late 1970s Rhodesia experienced what the historian Josiah Brownell has described as "a self-sustaining cycle of increased service demands, increased white emigration, and a worsening military situation".[32] The declining white population contributed to the increased military obligations on those who remained which in turn led to further emigration. The Manpower Committee noted that reservists who were required to undertake long periods of service were particularly likely to emigrate. Following considerable internal debate, in 1978 the Rhodesian government concluded that the white population was insufficient to meet the security force's needs and further increasing national service requirements on them would be counter-productive.[32]

The declining white population hindered Rhodesia's war efforts during the last years of the Bush War. Manpower shortages led to the abandonment of some intended military measures and forced others to be delayed or reduced in scope.[32] Brownell has noted that the "deteriorating security situation, largely as a result of white manpower constraints, finally forced the regime to negotiate its own demise".[40]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b Evans 2007, p. 177.
  2. ^ a b White 2004, p. 103.
  3. ^ Evans 2007, pp. 178–79.
  4. ^ Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2010, p. 27.
  5. ^ a b Pattenden 2021, p. 777.
  6. ^ Brownell 2020, p. 163.
  7. ^ Brownell 2008, pp. 595, 598–99.
  8. ^ Evans 2007, p. 182.
  9. ^ Evans 2007, pp. 182–84.
  10. ^ Evans 2007, pp. 184–91.
  11. ^ Evans 2007, p. 191.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2010, p. 57.
  13. ^ a b MacDonald 2013, p. 12.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h White 2004, p. 105.
  15. ^ a b c d e Brownell 2008, p. 605.
  16. ^ a b c Brownell 2008, p. 601.
  17. ^ Brownell 2008, pp. 601–602.
  18. ^ Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2010, p. 56.
  19. ^ a b c d Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2010, p. 58.
  20. ^ White 2004, pp. 105–106.
  21. ^ White 2004, p. 121.
  22. ^ Mathews 1983, p. 683.
  23. ^ a b Stewart 2013, p. 25.
  24. ^ White 2004, p. 118.
  25. ^ White 2004, p. 119.
  26. ^ White 2004, p. 120.
  27. ^ Stewart 2013, p. 83.
  28. ^ Stewart 2013, pp. 97–98.
  29. ^ Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2010, p. 59.
  30. ^ White 2004, p. 111.
  31. ^ White 2004, pp. 107–108.
  32. ^ a b c d e f Brownell 2008, p. 602.
  33. ^ a b c White 2004, p. 106.
  34. ^ White 2004, pp. 109, 112, 114.
  35. ^ Pattenden 2024, p. 690.
  36. ^ a b White 2004, p. 112.
  37. ^ Stewart 2013, p. 80.
  38. ^ Pattenden 2024, pp. 690–691.
  39. ^ Brownell 2008, pp. 604–605.
  40. ^ Brownell 2008, p. 603.

Works consulted

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  • Brownell, Josiah (September 2008). "The Hole in Rhodesia's Bucket: White Emigration and the End of Settler Rule". Journal of Southern African Studies. 34 (3): 591–610. doi:10.1080/03057070802259837.
  • Brownell, Josiah (2020). ""One last retreat": racial nostalgia and population panic in Smith's Rhodesia and Powell's Britain". In Geary, Daniel; Schofield, Camila; Sutton, Jennifer (eds.). Global White Nationalism: From Apartheid to Trump. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 157–86. ISBN 978-1-5261-4708-0.
  • Evans, Michael (June 2007). "The wretched of the empire: Politics, ideology and counterinsurgency in Rhodesia, 1965–80". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (2): 175–95. doi:10.1080/09574040701400601. S2CID 144153887.
  • MacDonald, Peter (2013). "Rhodesia: Lessons Learned" (PDF). The Journal of Military Operations. 1 (4): 11–14.
  • Mathews, Lloyd (1983). "Zimbabwe". In Keegan, John (ed.). World Armies (2nd ed.). Detroit: Gale Research Company. ISBN 978-0-8103-1515-0.`
  • Moorcraft, Paul L.; McLaughlin, Peter (2010). The Rhodesian War: A Military History. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0725-1.
  • Pattenden, Hugh (September 2024). "Victimhood in the writings of veterans of the Rhodesian Security Forces". Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines. 58 (3): 681–697. doi:10.1080/00083968.2024.2394188.
  • Stewart, Michael P. (1998). "The Rhodesian African Rifles The Growth and Adaptation of a Multicultural Regiment through the Rhodesian Bush War, 1965-1980" (PDF). Art of War Papers. US Army Command and General Staff College.
  • White, Luise (2004). "Civic virtue, young men, and the family: Conscription in Rhodesia, 1974–1980". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 37 (1): 103–121. doi:10.2307/4129074. JSTOR 4129074.
  • White, Luise (2021). Fighting and Writing: The Rhodesian Army at War and Postwar. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-4780-2128-5.
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