Chen Jiongming

In this Chinese name, the family name is Chen.

Chen Jiongming 陳炯明
Personal details
Born	(1878-01-18)18 January 1878 Haifeng, Guangdong, Qing Dynasty
Died	22 September 1933(1933-09-22) (aged 55) British Hong Kong
Nationality	Chinese
Political party	Tongmenghui China Zhi Gong Party
Occupation	Lawyer, military general, revolutionary, anarchist, politician
Military service
Years of service	1911–1925
Rank	General
Battles/wars	Xinhai Revolution Second Revolution (Republic of China) Warlord Era Constitutional Protection Movement Guangdong-Guangxi War Yunnan–Guangxi War
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	陳炯明
Simplified Chinese	陈炯明
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chén Jiǒngmíng Gwoyeu Romatzyh Chern Jeongming Wade–Giles Ch'en2 Chiung3-ming2 IPA [ʈʂʰə̌n tɕjʊ̀ŋmǐŋ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chàhn Gwíng-mìhng Jyutping Can4 Gwing2-ming4

Chen Jiongming (Chinese: 陳炯明; pinyin: Chén Jiǒngmíng; Wade–Giles: Ch'en Chiung-ming; 18 January 1878 – 22 September 1933) was a Chinese statesman, military leader, revolutionary, and a key figure in the federalist movement during the early Republican period of China. He served as the civil governor of Guangdong province from 1920 to 1922 and commander-in-chief of the Guangdong Army. Chen's advocacy for a federal system and peaceful unification put him at odds with Sun Yat-sen, leading to his eventual political marginalization.

Born in Haifeng, Guangdong, Chen initially pursued a classical education before studying law and politics in Canton, where he became involved in revolutionary activities against the Qing dynasty. He played a significant role in the Xinhai Revolution in Guangdong and held various administrative and military positions in the nascent republic. Chen's political career was characterized by a commitment to social reform and local self-government. As civil governor of Guangdong from 1920 to 1922, and previously as administrator in southern Fujian, he initiated wide-ranging reforms aimed at modernizing education, developing infrastructure, and promoting democratic institutions. His vision was to establish Guangdong as a model province for a future federated China.

However, Chen's advocacy for a federal system and peaceful unification brought him into direct conflict with Sun Yat-sen, who favored a centralized state unified by military force. This ideological divergence culminated in the June 16 Incident of 1922, leading to a permanent break between the two leaders. Subsequently, Chen was often vilified in mainstream Chinese historiography. Defeated by forces loyal to Sun and later the Kuomintang (KMT), Chen spent his later years in Hong Kong, where he founded the China Zhi Gong Party and continued to advocate for federalism until his death in 1933. While his historical portrayal remains contested, some contemporary and later accounts recognize him as a dedicated patriot and a proponent of a democratic, federal China.

Early life and education

Chen Jiongming was born on 18 January 1878, in Haifeng, Guangdong, to a landlord family. His given name was Jie (捷, meaning "victory"), as news of his birth coincided with his father winning the first literary degree, xiucai. Twenty-one years later, when Chen himself earned the xiucai degree in 1899, he adopted the name Jiongming (炯明, meaning "to illuminate brightly"). After entering the Academy of Law and Political Science in Canton, he took the courtesy name Jingcun (競存, meaning "to compete for survival"), influenced by Social Darwinism.

Chen's family owned land in Haifeng county, located in East Guangdong. The county was primarily rural but noted for salt production and was relatively close to the major commercial port of Swatow (Shantou) and the Pearl River Delta. Chen spoke Haifeng Hokkien, as well as Hakka, Cantonese, and, in his adult life, Mandarin with a Haifeng accent. His father, the only son of a gentry family, died when Chen was less than three years old. Chen's grandfather, who had high hopes for him, sent him to study Confucian classics at a private school at age five. After his grandfather's death a year later, the family's fortunes declined.

In 1899, the same year he obtained his xiucai degree, Chen married Huang Yun (黃雲), the daughter of his school principal. They had five daughters—Baoyao, Biyao (Phyllis), Ruiyao, Shuyao (Juyao), and Weiyao (Hilda May)—and three sons—Dingxia, Dingyan (Leslie), and Dingbing.

The Boxer War and its aftermath accelerated the reform movement in China. In 1904, Chen Jiongming entered Haifeng's new Short-term Normal School for training modern school teachers. After graduating in 1905, he applied for a teaching position at Haifeng's advanced elementary school but was rejected by the local gentry, who considered him to have "revolutionary ideas". In the spring of 1906, he unsuccessfully attempted to organize a private normal school. By that summer, he had enrolled in the Academy of Law and Political Science (廣東法政學堂) in Canton, graduating at the top of his class in July 1908. The academy, part of the Qing government's reform program, aimed to train future officials and parliamentarians, with Japanese and Chinese instructors teaching about the Japanese constitutional movement and Western learning.

Even as a student, Chen was noted for his interest in social welfare and local reform. During vacations, he established an association in Haifeng to promote local self-government (zizhihui) and a society to eradicate opium smoking. He gained a reputation for leadership and integrity by successfully impeaching a corrupt and cruel magistrate in Huizhou, donating the thousand-dollar reward he received to the Huizhou Fraternal Association in Canton. In February 1908, during a vacation, Chen persuaded over thirty young men from his village to swear a secret oath at the shrine of Wen Tianxiang in Haifeng, pledging support for a national revolution. This group consisted of local "village intellectuals" committed to eradicating local misery and social injustice.

After graduating in 1908, Chen returned to Haifeng and in early 1909 established the Haifeng zizhi bao (Haifeng Self-Government Gazette), serving as its editor-in-chief and using it to point out social ills. He was influenced by revolutionary literature, particularly Zou Rong's The Revolutionary Army, which advocated for the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of a Chinese republic modeled on the United States. This ideal of a federated republic became a lifelong pursuit for Chen.

Reformer and revolutionary (1909–1913)

Guangdong Provincial Assembly

Chen Jiongming

In 1909, as part of the Qing government's constitutional reforms, elections were held for provincial assemblies. Chen Jiongming, then just over the minimum age of thirty, was elected as one of the ninety-four members of the Guangdong Provincial Assembly, representing Huizhou fu. Despite widespread voter indifference and irregularities in the election process, the assembly convened its first annual session on 14 October 1909. Chen was elected as a resident member and quickly became a leading progressive voice, aligning with figures like Qiu Fengjia. He chaired the committee on legal matters.

During the assembly's first session, Chen introduced six of the twenty-five bills passed and was active in debates. He was a strong advocate for the complete suppression of gambling, a major source of provincial revenue but also a cause of social problems. He argued for uniform laws, opposed limiting prohibition to certain districts or types of gambling, and resisted making up lost revenues solely from local sources. He also took a firm stance against the governor-general's interference, asserting the assembly's independence. His efforts against gambling eventually led to a major political victory when, in the face of intense public pressure mobilized by Chen and his allies, the newly appointed Governor-General Zhang Mingqi agreed to a total suppression of gambling effective 30 March 1911. This event was celebrated with a grand parade in Canton and was noted by American Consul General Leo Bergholz as a significant assertion of the assembly's power.

Chen also proposed the elimination of summary executions (jiudi zhengfa), drawing on his earlier experience with the Huizhou magistrate. He advocated for girls' schools and the election of school boards. In a notable instance of his opposition to Manchu privilege, he argued against converting a parade ground into a Manchu commercial market, stating that there should be no distinction between Manchu and Han under the law.

In late 1909, Chen was one of three Guangdong delegates to the Union of Provincial Assemblies conference in Shanghai, which called for the early inauguration of a national parliament. However, already committed to revolution, he did not travel to Peking for the subsequent appeal.

Prelude to revolution

Chen Jiongming likely joined the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance) between 1906 and 1908, inspired by his instructor Zhu Zhixin, or formally in 1909 during the Shanghai conference. He was involved in planning the Canton New Army Uprising of 12 February 1910. His residence was used for storing weapons and ammunition. The uprising, intended to coincide with Chinese New Year, was prematurely launched after authorities became aware of revolutionary activities. Led by Ni Yingdian, the revolt failed, and Ni was killed. Chen, having sent his mother to safety in Hong Kong, secretly fled there with Ma Yuhang.

While in Hong Kong in February 1910, Chen, along with Liu Shifu and others, formed the Chinese Assassination Corps (支那暗殺團). This anarchist-inspired group aimed to eliminate "evil officials" through acts of "pure" political assassination, operating independently of the Revolutionary Alliance. The Corps planned an assassination of the Prince Regent, Zai Feng, in Peking in July 1910, which failed when their operative deserted.

Despite his revolutionary activities, Chen returned to Canton for the Provincial Assembly's extraordinary session in May 1910 and the second annual session in October 1910. During these sessions, he continued to push for reforms, including the reorganization of the salt administration to replace lost gambling revenues. He also initiated an investigation into a corrupt magistrate in Haifeng, leading to the official's dismissal.

In December 1910, Chen and his "ke" (assenting) senator allies, who had supported his anti-gambling proposals against the "fou" (dissenting) senators bribed by gambling interests, established a newspaper called Ke bao (Assent Gazette). Ostensibly for the anti-gambling movement, it was a revolutionary organ published under the nose of the Manchu authorities. The paper was short-lived, being closed down by Canton authorities on 23 April 1911, for articles deemed "derogatory toward the Throne". Chen likely authored some of its subtly revolutionary articles.

Revolution of 1911

Chen participated in the Canton Uprising of 27 April 1911 (also known as the Yellow Flower Mound revolt, 黃花崗起義). He was responsible for organization within the Tongmenghui's South China branch and used his position as senator to set up secret cells and store munitions, including at the Ke bao office and his assembly quarters. The uprising, led by Huang Xing, was poorly coordinated and brutally suppressed, though Chen's direct role in the fighting on that day is unclear, as conflicting orders and delays plagued the revolutionaries. After its failure, Chen secretly left for Hong Kong.

Following the April revolt, the Assassination Corps targeted Admiral Li Zhun and Governor-General Zhang Mingqi. An attack on Li Zhun on 13 August failed, and one of the assassins, Chen Jingyue (陳敬岳), recommended by Chen Jiongming, was captured and later executed. On 25 October 1911, after the Wuchang Uprising (10 October), the Corps successfully assassinated the Manchu General Feng Shan (鳳山) in Canton, an event that significantly aided the revolutionary cause in Guangdong.

Flag used by Chen Jiongming's army, with a well-field system symbol

By mid-October 1911, Chen Jiongming had been elected commander-in-chief of a new revolutionary army, the Xun Army (循軍), in Hong Kong. He established his headquarters in Danshui, Haifeng, and planned a three-pronged attack on Huizhou. His army, largely composed of peasants from the East River districts, adopted a flag with the ancient well-field system symbol, signifying "land to the tiller". The Huizhou uprising began on 3 November. After initial resistance, the Qing General Qin Bingzhi (秦炳直), recognizing Chen as a man of honor, surrendered Huizhou to him on 8 November. This victory was pivotal; on 9 November 1911, Guangdong declared independence without further bloodshed. Hu Hanmin was elected military governor (dudu), and on 18 November, Chen Jiongming was elected vice military governor (fududu).

First Republican administration in Canton (1911–1913)

Upon assuming office, Chen Jiongming faced major challenges, including financial instability and unruly "citizen soldiers". He sent 12,000 troops to support the revolutionary government in Nanjing. To address fiscal problems and unify military and administrative affairs, Chen convened a new provincial assembly in December 1911, which, in an unprecedented move, included ten female representatives. He established the Association of the Army Corps to disband undisciplined citizen soldiers and integrate them into the regular army. Zhu Zhixin was put in charge of this integration, while Chen Jinghua (陳景華) became police commissioner.

When Hu Hanmin left for Shanghai with Sun Yat-sen in December 1911, Chen Jiongming became acting military governor. Despite the assembly electing Wang Jingwei as the new military governor, Wang declined, and Chen continued to govern. He worked to establish the Guangdong Provincial Bank and implement a currency transition. American Consul General F.D. Cheshire praised Chen for restoring peace and order, suppressing gambling, closing brothels, and taking steps against opium smoking. Chen also initiated an ambitious modernization program for Canton, including tearing down city walls for new roads and planning new business centers and public parks. He emphasized the importance of capable county magistrates and implemented a system to monitor their performance.

In April 1912, Sun Yat-sen, after relinquishing the provisional presidency to Yuan Shikai, visited Canton and reinstated Hu Hanmin as governor. Chen, uncertain of Sun's intentions, withdrew to Hong Kong. Hu, needing Chen's support, offered him the position of Chief of the General Pacification Bureau, responsible for military affairs and suppressing gambling, opium smoking, banditry, and feuds. Chen accepted and returned to Canton in May.

Second Revolution and Constitutional Protection Movement (1913–1920)

First campaign against Yuan Shikai and exile (1913–1915)

As Yuan Shikai consolidated power in Peking, tensions with the Nationalists grew. In June 1913, Yuan dismissed Nationalist military governors, including Hu Hanmin, appointing Chen Jiongming in his stead. Chen initially hesitated, demanding financial support from Peking and the abolition of the high military commissioner's office he himself held. After Yuan largely agreed, Chen accepted the governorship on 4 July. However, with Li Liejun declaring Jiangxi's independence on 12 July, sparking the Second Revolution, Chen declared Guangdong independent on 18 July and assumed the title of commander-in-chief of the punitive expedition against Yuan.

Chen's support for the anti-Yuan campaign was lukewarm initially, as he sought to consolidate local support and prepare for war. Public opinion in Guangdong favored peace. However, Yuan's forces, led by Long Jiguang, invaded Guangdong. Facing betrayals from some of his own generals bribed by Yuan, and with his troops unwilling to fight, Chen was forced to flee Canton on 4 August 1913, escaping to Hong Kong. The British authorities in Hong Kong, sympathetic to Yuan, deported Chen. He traveled to Singapore, where local Chinese leaders persuaded him to stay in Malaysia to monitor the situation.

During his exile (August 1913 – December 1915), Chen spent time in Malaysia and traveled to Europe in 1914, visiting Paris and England. The outbreak of World War I curtailed his European tour. In Birmingham, he established an aviation school to train Chinese pilots. During this period, Sun Yat-sen reorganized the Nationalist Party into the Chinese Revolutionary Party (中華革命黨) in Japan, demanding an oath of personal loyalty from members. Chen, along with Huang Xing and other prominent Nationalists, found this unacceptable and refused to join. When Japan presented the Twenty-One Demands to Yuan Shikai's government in January 1915, Chen, Huang Xing, and others issued a circular telegram pledging to cease revolutionary activities against Yuan and unite against Japanese aggression.

Restoration of the republic and hufa movement (1915–1918)

Republican leaders, 1916. Sun Yat-sen (first row, center) and Chen Jiongming (front row, fourth from left).

When Yuan Shikai declared his intention to restore the monarchy in December 1915, Chen Jiongming returned to China from Malaysia, raising an army in the East River districts of Guangdong to fight against Long Jiguang, Yuan's supporter. This marked the second anti-Yuan campaign. Chen's forces, composed mainly of citizen soldiers, faced initial setbacks. However, with Lu Rongting in Guangxi declaring independence and Li Liejun's Yunnan troops advancing, Long Jiguang declared Guangdong independent in April 1916 to avoid a multi-front war. Yuan Shikai annulled his monarchy in March and died in June 1916. Li Yuanhong became president. Chen Jiongming cooperated with the new civil governor, Zhu Qinglan, in disbanding his army and was conferred a full generalship by President Li. He then embarked on a tour of northern and central China.

In the summer of 1917, after Prime Minister Duan Qirui engineered the dissolution of parliament and the resignation of President Li Yuanhong, southern provinces launched the Constitutional Protection Movement (hufa yundong). Chen Jiongming, urged by Zhu Qinglan, returned to Canton with Sun Yat-sen, Zhang Binglin, and Admiral Cheng Biguang. Chen was appointed commander-in-chief of twenty battalions of garrison troops, many of whom were his loyal followers. The Northern militarists planned a four-pronged attack to subdue the South. Chen, leading the "Guangdong Army to assist Fujian" (粵軍援閩), marched into Fujian province in December 1917 to counter the forces of Fujian's military governor, Li Houji (李厚基). After initial battles, Chen captured Zhangzhou in southern Fujian on 31 August 1918, where he remained until November 1920. His success in the Fujian campaign was attributed to intense preparation, including establishing an arsenal, supply networks, and local militias, which facilitated both military operations and regional commerce.

"Little Model China" in southern Fujian (1918–1920)

Map of the Constitution Protection Region of Southern Fujian

During his two years in southern Fujian (Minnan), Chen Jiongming established an administration in the twenty-six counties under his control, creating what some contemporaries called a "Little Model China" (小模範中國) or the "Moscow of Southern Fujian". His reforms were influenced by the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement. He focused on practical and realistic changes, maintaining military strength while building civil institutions.

Chen invited prominent intellectuals to Zhangzhou and supported the publication of the magazine Minxing bao (Fujian Star, 閩星報) and the Minxing ribao (Fujian Star Daily News). These publications promoted new ideas, vernacular language, and critical discussion of current affairs. In his foreword to Minxing bao, Chen articulated his belief in the New Culture Movement's core concepts: freedom (ziyou), equality (pingdeng), fraternal love (bo'ai), and mutual aid (huzhu). He argued for an evolutionary process of reform based on these principles, rather than force, and was critical of narrow nationalism, advocating instead for a broader humanism leading to a world federation.

Administratively, Chen implemented a system of combined military and civil rule, with himself as the supreme ruler. He appointed Deng Keng as chief of staff for military affairs and Liang Bingxian for education. His administration undertook significant urban renewal in Zhangzhou, tearing down old city walls, building new roads, and establishing public parks. American consular reports noted the stark contrast between the progressive improvements in Zhangzhou and the stagnant conditions in Amoy (Xiamen).

Chen placed a strong emphasis on education. He maintained support for existing schools and financed study abroad for at least eighty students, including Peng Pai. He ordered that two students from every county in southern Fujian participate in the "Work and Thrift" study program in France. He also proposed a southwestern university project.

In the spring of 1920, General Alexey Potapov, a representative of Vladimir Lenin, secretly visited Chen in Zhangzhou. This was the first visit of a Soviet representative to China, indicating Soviet interest in Chen's activities. Lenin offered arms and support, but Chen politely declined, citing Zhangzhou's lack of harbor facilities and expressing disagreement with the Soviet violation of human rights. Despite some Western diplomatic reports referring to Chen as the "Bolshevik general", his administration was generally seen as socialist but not radically Communist. Chen's administration in Zhangzhou was praised for its municipal reforms and creating a "very favorable attitude toward the South".

Governor of Guangdong and Federalist ascendant (1920–1922)

Chen Jiongming

In the summer of 1920, following the withdrawal of Northern troops from Hunan, Chen Jiongming launched a campaign to liberate Guangdong from the control of Guangxi militarists. After several hard-fought battles, his Guangdong Army (粵軍, Yuejun) captured Swatow in August and Huizhou in October. On 2 November 1920, Chen arrived in Canton to a huge welcoming party, ending seven years of "guest" troop domination.

Upon taking control, Chen was urged by former provincial assembly members to prioritize a "ten-year period of rest and savings" (xiuyang shengxi), a slogan that became popular among the Cantonese and aligned with Chen's federalist vision of peaceful reconstruction. Sun Yat-sen, Wu Tingfang, and Tang Shaoyi, who had left Canton in 1918, were welcomed back. Chen envisioned a federation beginning with twelve provinces, including Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, and Sichuan.

Reforms in Guangdong

As Civil Governor of Guangdong and Commander-in-Chief of the Guangdong Army, Chen embarked on a comprehensive reform program. He aimed to establish Guangdong as a model province, laying the foundation for a democratic government by separating civil and military administrations. His programs received enthusiastic support from the Chinese people and some Americans.

Key reforms included:

• Prohibition of gambling and opium smoking: Chen immediately proclaimed a total prohibition of gambling and took strict measures against opium smuggling and smoking, publicly burning large quantities of confiscated opium.
• Disbandment of troops: To reduce military expenditure, Chen initiated a large-scale demobilization, aiming to reduce the army to 60,000 men.
• Education reform: Chen established an independent Provincial Education Committee, with Chen Duxiu as its first chairman. Guangdong adopted the 6-3-3 education system (six years primary, three junior middle, three senior middle) and an experimental curriculum that became a national prototype. Compulsory public education for both boys and girls was implemented. The University of Guangdong (later Sun Yat-sen University) was established in 1921. Support was provided for students studying abroad, and social education was promoted through athletic meets and art exhibitions.
• Industrial development, commerce, and transportation: Chen upgraded the industrial development section, promoted the silk industry, and encouraged investment from overseas Chinese. City walls in Canton were torn down for new roads, and a provincial railway system was planned.
• Judicial system and police: Chen expanded the local court system and strictly forbade summary executions. He advocated for local militias for public safety and introduced a modern police system with a police academy.
• Financial reform: Facing a dire financial situation exacerbated by military spending, Chen cut administrative staff, established an audit department, and sought to reorganize the salt administration.
• Modern municipalities and local self-government: The Provisional Charter of the City of Canton was promulgated in December 1920, establishing Canton as the first modern city in China outside foreign settlements. Chen also promoted local self-government at the county level, with elected county assemblies and magistrates. The Guangdong Provisional Constitution of 1921, ratified in December, emphasized civil rights and provincial autonomy. This period (1921–1922) marked the apogee of the Federalist movement in China, with provinces like Hunan, Zhejiang, and Sichuan also drafting provincial constitutions.

Sun Yat-sen's "election" and the Guangxi campaign

Despite the prevailing sentiment for peace and reconstruction in Guangdong, Sun Yat-sen, who had returned to Canton in November 1920, moved to consolidate his power. In February 1921, he proposed that a president be elected for the southern government. This was opposed by many, including leaders of southwestern provinces and military commanders of the Guangdong Army, who feared it would make Guangdong a target for Northern invasion and questioned the province's capacity to sustain such a conflict. Chen Jiongming also believed the time was inopportune, as it would destroy the unity of the South and isolate Guangdong. He noted that only about 250–260 members of the old parliament remained in Canton, less than half the number needed for a quorum under the Provisional Constitution of 1912.

Nevertheless, on 7 April 1921, in an emergency joint session of parliament, Sun Yat-sen was elected "President-Extraordinary" (非常大總統) with 218 votes; Chen Jiongming received 3. The election, which took only an hour and fifty minutes, was marred by intimidation, with 700–800 "fierce-looking" ruffians in the spectators' gallery, and allegations of bribery. This "bogus" election, as Chen's supporters saw it, further strained relations.

The Peking government reacted to Sun's election by backing a Guangxi Army invasion of Guangdong in April 1921. Chen Jiongming led the Guangdong Army to counter this threat. After initial defensive fighting, he launched a counteroffensive in June, capturing Wuzhou and Nanning by August. The campaign concluded with the fall of Longzhou in September, but the victory was costly, with over 10,000 Guangdong soldiers killed and the provincial treasury depleted by about $8 million. Chen, while establishing a self-government program in Guangxi under the new civil governor Ma Junwu (馬君武), lamented the heavy burden the war had placed on Guangdong.

Tensions with Sun Yat-sen and Qiao telegram episode

Despite Sun Yat-sen's public support for Chen's efforts to make Guangdong a model province, underlying tensions persisted. Sun's unilateral move to become president had lost him the support of southwestern provinces, and his power base was largely confined to Canton, relying on Chen as civil governor and commander-in-chief of the Guangdong Army.

The "Qiao Telegram" (皓電) episode in August 1921 brought these tensions to a head. While Chen was in Nanning directing the Guangxi campaign, he issued a circular telegram (dated with the character qiao [皓] for 18 August, as was customary) urging Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥) of Zhejiang to convene a conference in Shanghai to draft a national constitution. This move, seen as Chen unilaterally espousing a national policy without presidential approval, drew strong protests from Sun's partisans and some overseas Chinese, who accused Chen of treason. Public opinion in Guangdong, however, overwhelmingly supported Chen and the federalist cause. An editorial in the Huazi ribao argued that the attack on Chen was, in reality, an attack on the Federalist movement.

Sun's Northern Expedition and Chen's departure

On 15 October 1921, Sun Yat-sen, despite his earlier declarations for peaceful unification, left Canton at the head of the Northern Expeditionary Army to reunify China by force. Chen Jiongming, who strongly opposed the military venture but was in no financial position to aid it significantly after the costly Guangxi campaign, reluctantly agreed to release one division under General Huang Dawei (黃大偉) to join Sun. He told American and Japanese consuls he would "neither aid nor hinder the President".

Sun's expedition stalled in Guilin, Guangxi, as Hunan authorities refused passage for his army. Frustrated, Sun blamed Chen. On 21 March 1922, Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Chen's chief of staff and commander of the First Guangdong Division, was assassinated in Canton. Nationalist historians have accused Chen of ordering the assassination, claiming Deng was to secure funds for Sun's expedition. However, Liao Zhongkai was Sun's finance minister, and Deng was Chen's top military man. Contemporary reports and later analyses suggest the assassination was instigated by Sun's faction. This event, along with the defection or neutralization of other key commanders loyal to Chen, critically weakened Chen's military position.

On 26 March 1922, Sun Yat-sen decided to return secretly to Guangdong with his forces, apparently intending to eliminate or neutralize Chen. Chen was alerted to Sun's movements. When Sun summoned Chen for an interview on 16 April, Chen did not comply, fearing for his safety. On 21 April, Sun dismissed Chen from all his offices. At 2:00 AM on 22 April, Chen Jiongming left Canton for his hometown Huizhou to avoid conflict, with 10,000 of his troops following.

16 June incident and break with Sun (1922)

Chen Jiongming

The events of 16 June 1922 marked an irrevocable break between Chen Jiongming and Sun Yat-sen and became a pivotal, and highly contested, point in Chen's career.

Prelude to the incident

While Chen was in Huizhou, the political situation in China shifted. In May 1922, Wu Peifu defeated Zhang Zuolin, consolidating Zhili clique control in the North. Wu and other Northern leaders advocated for the restoration of the old parliament and the 1912 Provisional Constitution, and for President Li Yuanhong to resume office. On 2 June, the Northern President Xu Shichang resigned. Prominent educators and citizens, led by Cai Yuanpei, pleaded with Sun Yat-sen to abrogate his Northern Expedition and join in a peaceful unification. Sun, however, refused to resign his "extraordinary" presidency.

In Canton, Ye Ju (葉舉) and other Guangdong Army commanders, loyal to Chen, became increasingly restive due to lack of pay and Sun's perceived intransigence. On 12 June, Sun, from his headquarters on the warship Yongfeng, threatened to use poison gas against Ye Ju's troops if they did not withdraw from Canton. On 14 June, Ye Ju and other senior officers held a press conference explaining the army's grievances and desire for Chen to return. Chen, from Huizhou, expressed his desire for a peaceful resolution and urged the Guangdong Army to support constitutional protection.

Incident and Sun's bombardment of Canton

At 3:00 AM on 16 June 1922, a detachment of the Guangdong Army surrounded Sun Yat-sen's Presidential Palace in Canton. Sun, warned two hours earlier by General Wei Bangping (魏邦平), had already escaped to the Yongfeng. Fighting lasted until the palace guard surrendered at 10:00 AM. Nationalist historians have accused Ye Ju of allowing looting, but contemporary accounts suggest Ye Ju's main concern was disarming Sun's irregular citizen soldiers.

On 17 June, Sun Yat-sen, from his warship, ordered the bombardment of Canton. The shelling, which lasted about two hours and was repeated in the evening, was described as "without much discrimination" and caused over a hundred civilian deaths and significant property damage. Sun's stated reason was to protest the actions of Chen's troops and to improve his negotiating position, though the act was widely condemned.

Efforts at peace negotiations followed. The provincial assembly and public bodies called for Chen Jiongming to return and for Sun to leave Canton. Chen telegraphed Wu Tingfang (acting civil governor) urging Sun to step down in the interest of national unity and the restored parliament. Sun, however, demanded Chen's apology and the punishment of his officers. With Sun's Northern Expeditionary forces under Xu Chongzhi retreating towards Guangdong, and after further skirmishes, Sun Yat-sen finally left Canton for Shanghai on a British gunboat on 9 August 1922. Chen Jiongming returned to Canton on 15 August and resumed his position as commander-in-chief of the Guangdong Army.

Consequences and political differences

The 16 June Incident was a major blow to the Federalist movement, signaling a serious break in the Southern camp just as Wu Peifu in the North appeared receptive to peaceful unification. Most Chinese viewed it as a power struggle, but Chen called it a "provoked revolt" (niangbian, 釀變), while Hu Shih termed it a "revolution". B. Lawrence concluded that Chen did not actively plan or execute the coup, though he had ample provocation.

The incident solidified the political differences between Chen and Sun. Chen advocated for incremental, local-level reforms, building democracy from the bottom up, and a federal system for China. Sun, by contrast, sought a centralized state unified by a disciplined revolutionary party elite, with himself as the paramount leader. Sun's insistence on personal loyalty, evidenced by the Chinese Revolutionary Party oath which Chen had refused in 1914, and his later adoption of a Soviet-style party organization, contrasted sharply with Chen's belief in a multi-party democratic system. Hu Shih, in contemporary commentary, highlighted this ideological conflict and criticized Sun's willingness to sacrifice principles for power, while praising Chen's practical patriotism.

Dwindling hopes and defeat of federalism (1922–1925)

After returning to Canton in August 1922, Chen Jiongming immediately resumed his civil reform programs and attempted to address the dire financial crisis left by Sun Yat-sen's administration. The provincial bank faced a shortfall of over $10 million and a debt of $7 million, with tens of millions in unsecured paper currency issued. Chen sought to stabilize the currency through agreements with the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and two foreign loans from the Anglo-French China Corps for infrastructure and currency stabilization. These efforts were hampered by Sun Yat-sen's agents working to block the loans and by terrorist activities.

Sun versus the Guangdong Army (1923)

Sun Yat-sen, from Shanghai, continued his efforts to regain control of Guangdong. He used various methods to weaken Chen's Guangdong Army, including assassinating its leaders (Deng Keng and Guan Guoxiong) and bribing commanders with customs surplus funds. In January 1923, facing an invasion by Sun's allied forces from Yunnan and Guangxi (led by Shen Hongyi, a former subordinate of Wu Peifu persuaded by Sun to switch allegiance), Chen Jiongming resigned on 15 January and left for Haifeng to avoid further conflict that "would do harm to the province". Sun returned to Canton on 21 February and re-established his government.

Chen's Guangdong Army, however, did not disband. Senior officers refused to work under either the Peking government or Sun, raising an independent flag and proclaiming Chen Jiongming their de facto leader. In May 1923, Sun ordered a general attack on the Guangdong Army, beginning with the siege of Huizhou on 28 May. The siege lasted five months, causing immense suffering to the civilian population. Simultaneously, Chen's forces launched a campaign into southern Fujian to counter attacks from Sun's Fujian allies. After initial successes, they eventually lifted the siege of Huizhou on 27 October. However, in the subsequent Battle of the Canton Suburbs in November, the Guangdong Army's attempts to retake Canton were ill-coordinated and failed. From late November 1923 until late 1924, Chen Jiongming remained in Haifeng, engaging in national affairs and considering future actions.

Xiguan Massacre and Soviet connection (1924)

Sun Yat-sen's government in Canton became increasingly authoritarian and reliant on Soviet support. In May 1924, Sun's government imposed a new tax, leading to a general strike by Canton merchants led by Chen Lianbai (陳廉伯), head of the Canton Merchant Volunteer Corps. Tensions escalated when Sun confiscated a shipment of arms ordered by the Merchant Volunteers.

On 15 October 1924, following a clash between the Merchant Volunteers Corps and Whampoa cadets, Sun's forces, apparently on the advice of his Russian adviser Mikhail Borodin, launched a full-scale assault on the Xiguan (西關) district, the wealthiest residential and business section of Canton. Government agents set fires, and by 17 October, 3,000 buildings were destroyed, over 2,000 civilians killed, and property losses estimated at $30 to $50 million. This event became known as the Xiguan Massacre (西關慘案). Sun proudly acknowledged ordering the burning. The massacre was widely condemned, with Cantonese residents in Shanghai and the Cantonese Association in Peking calling for Sun to be brought to justice.

The Soviet connection was increasingly evident. Sun's government operated on a one-party rule principle, demanded party membership for officials, and undermined the independent judicial system. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in May 1924 with Chiang Kai-shek as commandant, received significant Soviet funding and advisers. Sun also entered into secret agreements with the Soviets regarding Soviet interests in Outer Mongolia and the Chinese Eastern Railway in return for financial and military aid.

Cantonese movement to expel Sun and defeat (1924–1925)

The Xiguan Massacre galvanized Cantonese opposition to Sun. On 25 October 1924, the Association of All Classes to Save Guangdong (各界救粵聯合會) was formed in Hong Kong, calling for peaceful unification with the North and urging Chen Jiongming to lead the Guangdong Army to rid Canton of Sun's government. Chen agreed, contingent on adequate funding and a high probability of success in a single battle to avoid a protracted, destructive war.

In November 1924, at a second Swatow conference, Chen and his allies planned a three-pronged offensive to retake Canton. The campaign began, but Sun Yat-sen died in Peking on 12 March 1925. Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the most powerful figure in Canton. In February 1925, Chiang's Russian-trained and equipped Whampoa cadets, along with Xu Chongzhi's Cantonese forces, launched a counteroffensive along the Guangdong coastline (the First East River Campaign). Despite being outnumbered, Chiang's forces, benefiting from superior Russian weaponry (artillery, armored cars, machine guns) and Russian officers directing operations, defeated the Guangdong Army. By early April, Chen Jiongming had left for Shanghai.

A second East River campaign was launched by Chiang Kai-shek in September 1925 after he consolidated power in Canton by defeating Sun's mercenary Yunnanese and Guangxi armies. The Guangdong Army, under Liu Zhilu (劉震寰), after brief successes, was again defeated. Huizhou fell in mid-October. By November, the remnants of the Guangdong Army had retreated into southern Fujian and dispersed. This marked the end of the Guangdong Army as a significant force. The Federalist movement in China suffered a death blow with the defeat of the Guangdong Army and Tang Jiyao's Yunnan Federalist Army in 1925, and the subsequent Northern Expedition by Chiang Kai-shek in 1926, which led to the nominal unification of China under a centralized KMT government.

Later years and death (1925–1933)

After the defeat of the Guangdong Army in 1925, Chen Jiongming made his home in Hong Kong. He continued to advocate for the unification of China through peaceful, political means, particularly federalism.

Founding of the China Zhi Gong Party

Shortly after his break with Sun Yat-sen in 1922, Chen had begun considering the formation of a new political party dedicated to federalist principles. The Xiguan Massacre in 1924 further galvanized overseas Chinese, predominantly Cantonese, who were dismayed by Sun's "sovietized" Nationalist Party. On 10 October 1925, the Hongmen Zhigong Association (洪門致公堂) of the Americas, a large Chinese fraternal organization, was formally reorganized in San Francisco into a political party, the China Zhi Gong Party (中國致公黨). Chen Jiongming was elected chairman, and Tang Jiyao of Yunnan as vice chairman. The party moved its headquarters to Hong Kong in early 1926 and rapidly gained over 100,000 members, particularly among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia.

The Zhigong Party's platform called for a federal government, a multiparty political system, protection of basic freedoms, elected legislative bodies at all levels, an independent judiciary, and nationalization of the military. It emphasized economic development through free enterprise, protection of peasants' and landowners' rights, and a minimum wage system. It also advocated for the abolition of unequal treaties and the protection of overseas Chinese rights.

Advocacy for federalism and national unification

In the winter of 1927, Chen published A Proposal for the Unification of China (中國統一芻議, Zhongguo tongyi chuyi). The book reiterated his federalist philosophy, advocating for a democratic China built from the bottom up, with power shared between central, provincial, county, and village levels, and representation through both geographical and occupational organizations. Zhang Binglin, in his foreword to the second printing, praised Chen's moderation and reason, contrasting it with Sun Yat-sen's Soviet-style one-party dictatorship.

Chen also envisioned a "World Federalism", where the federalist principle would extend to the reconstruction of Asia, Europe, and America, eventually leading to a world federation of demilitarized nations, a Confucian utopia (shijie datong).

Between 1928 and 1931, Chen made several trips to northern China to confer with leaders like Duan Qirui about peaceful unification. In December 1928, he and Northern leaders agreed to form the Grand Republican Alliance (共和大同盟, Gonghe Datongmeng). After the Mukden Incident in September 1931, which marked the beginning of the Japanese takeover of Manchuria, Chen wrote an open letter to Cai Yuanpei and Zhang Ji, urging them to use the ongoing peace conference between the rival KMT factions in Nanjing and Canton to address the national crisis. He proposed a four-point program for national salvation: abandoning one-party rule, unifying the national army under a defense ministry, establishing a federal government, and reforming national finances. On 1 December 1931, he issued an open letter to the Chinese people, warning of the dangers of Japanese aggression and Communist influence, and exhorting them to rise above factionalism.

Death

Tomb of Chen Jiongming on Ziwei Hill, Huizhou, Guangdong

Chen Jiongming had always enjoyed good health, but in August 1933, he contracted typhoid fever. He died in Hong Kong on 22 September 1933, at the age of fifty-five. His last words, reportedly, were "The Republic! The Republic!" (gonghe gonghe). His body was covered with the five-colored flag of the early Republic. After a funeral service in Hong Kong attended by many, his casket was temporarily stored. On 3 April 1935, he was buried on Ziwei Hill (紫薇山) in Huizhou. Memorial services were held in Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, and America, and a Memorial Record (哀思錄, Aisilu) containing eulogistic essays and poems was produced. Chen lived a spartan life, true to his anarchist ideals, and was known for his filial devotion and happy marriage. He was survived by his mother, wife, and eight children.

Legacy

Chen Jiongming's legacy is complex and contested. For decades, both Nationalist and Communist historiography portrayed him as a counter-revolutionary warlord who betrayed Sun Yat-sen and obstructed the unification of China. This narrative largely stemmed from his opposition to Sun's centralized, one-party approach to revolution and his role in the 16 June Incident.

However, since the late 20th century, there has been a gradual re-evaluation of Chen's role in modern Chinese history, particularly in academic circles outside mainland China, and increasingly within it. Scholars have highlighted his commitment to federalism, democratic reform, and social progress, as evidenced by his administrative achievements in Guangdong and southern Fujian. His son, Leslie H. Dingyan Chen, published a significant English-language biography in 1999, aiming to "rescue the concept of Chinese federalism and the reputation of one patriot who espoused it".

Chen's advocacy for a federal system is seen by some as a viable, democratic alternative to the centralized, authoritarian paths ultimately taken by both the Nationalists and the Communists. His emphasis on local self-government, rule of law, and peaceful development resonates with ongoing discussions about political reform in China. The China Zhi Gong Party, which he co-founded, continues to exist as one of the eight legally recognized minor political parties in the People's Republic of China, though its platform and role are vastly different from Chen's original vision.

Contemporary accounts, such as those by John Dewey and Bertrand Russell, praised Chen's reform efforts and his vision for a modernized China. Philip Hadden, an American journalist, wrote in 1921, at the zenith of Chen's career, that Chen's name would "stand forth as one of the great national heroes that have helped to uplift their countrymen". While this prediction was largely unfulfilled due to his political defeat, Chen Jiongming remains a significant figure for understanding the diverse political currents and alternative paths considered during China's tumultuous Republican era.

References

Works cited

• Chen, Leslie H. (1999). Chen Jiongming and the Federalist Movement: Regional Leadership and Nation Building in Early Republican China. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-89264-135-5. LCCN 98-55065.

Further reading

• Chen, Leslie H. (1992). "Chen Jiongming (1878–1933) and the Chinese Federalist Movement". Republican China. 17 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1080/08932344.1992.11720184. S2CID 163260329.
• Goikhman, Izabella (2013). "Chen Jiongming: Becoming a Warlord in Republican China". In Leutner, Mechthild; Goikhman, Izabella (eds.). State, Society and Governance in Republican China. LIT Verlag. pp. 77–101. ISBN 978-3-643-90471-3.
• Guo, Vivienne Xiangwei (2020). "Not Just a Man of Guns: Chen Jiongming, Warlord, and the May Fourth Intellectual (1919–1922)". Journal of Chinese History. 4 (1): 161–185. doi:10.1017/jch.2019.22. hdl:10871/39039. ISSN 2059-1632.
• Guo, Vivienne Xiangwei (2022). "The Point of No Return: Chen Jiongming and the Anarcho-Federalist Blueprint". Negotiating A Chinese Federation. Leiden: Brill. pp. 32–65. doi:10.1163/9789004528659_003. ISBN 978-90-04-52864-2.
• Hsieh, Winston (1991). The Ideas and Ideals of a Warlord: Ch'en Chiung-Ming (1878-1933). La Trobe University. OCLC 221339492.
• Zhao, Xuduo (2023). "Between Sun and Chen (1922)". Heretics in Revolutionary China. Leiden: Brill. pp. 112–145. doi:10.1163/9789004547148_005. ISBN 978-90-04-54713-1.

External links

• Center for Chen Jiongming Studies (in Chinese)
• Center for Chen Jiongming Studies