American–Portuguese conflicts
| American–Portuguese conflicts | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||
| Belligerents | |||||
19th century: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves Kingdom of Portugal20th century: |
19th century: United States Río de la Plata Federal League[1] 20th century:  United States | ||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||
|
19th century: John VI José C. da Serra 20th century:  António Salazar Gabriel M. Teixeira (governor) |
19th century: John Q. Adams José G. Artigas[1] Captain Fish Captain Davy Captain John Daniels Captain Chase Thomas Craven20th century:  John F. Kennedy William Halsey Jr. John S. McCain Sr. | ||||
The American–Portuguese conflicts were a series of incidents and engagements between Portugal and the United States from the 19th to 20th century.
19th century
[edit]American–Portuguese naval conflicts
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During the early 19th century, Portugal repeatedly protested against American privateers who, operating from U.S. ports, attacked Portuguese ships under the flags of South American insurgents, such as the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata,[2] and the Federal League.[1]
The first complaints began in December 1816, when the Portuguese envoy in Washington, José Correia da Serra, reported that American privateers, such as Captain Fish, were attacking Portuguese subjects under the flag of Buenos Aires. He added that the U.S. frigate Clifton, commanded by Captain Davy, armed with 32 guns and a large crew, had sailed from Baltimore for Buenos Aires, preparing to join other American vessels in attacking Portuguese ships.[2]
In May 1817, he complained once again about the increasing number of Portuguese ships captured by privateers in U.S. ports. A particular case involved the capture of three Portuguese ships by privateers operated by American citizens.[2]
In December 1818, the privateer Irresistible, whose captain, John Daniels, and crew were all Americans, was plundering on the coast of Brazil, and da Serra requested legal action if the ship entered American ports.[2]
On November 23, 1819, da Serra sent a letter to U.S. secretary of state John Quincy Adams explaining the problem. In the letter, da Serra accused American ports of serving as hubs for privateers, claiming that one port alone had armed 26 ships that attacked Portuguese vessels. He stated:
One City alone on this coast has armed twenty-six ships which prey upon our vitals, and a week ago, three armed ships of this nature were in that port waiting for a favorable occasion of sailing for a cruise.[2][3]
In June 1820, da Serra complained that a Portuguese prize had been sold in Baltimore to Captain Chase, who intended to use it as a privateer against Portuguese ships.[4]
Belém Tower incident
[edit]
On March 28, 1865, 10:00 AM, the Confederate ironclad CSS Stonewall departed from Lisbon, Portugal, to the Atlantic.[5] Moments later, the USS Niagara, under Commodore Thomas Craven, raised its anchor. The commander at Belém Tower took this as an attempt to chase the Stonewall out of port, which violated the 24-hour rule of preventing opposing belligerents from leaving neutral ports within a day of each other. To ensure USS Niagara remained in port, the commander ordered his guns manned, and opened fire.[5] One sailor aboard the frigate noted:
One shot struck us forward of the Beam and another struck our smokestack and several passed over us.[5]
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Niagara's presence in Lisbon followed Stonewall, which had been instructed to leave immediately. Commodore Craven later claimed he had no intention to leave the port, but rather to shift anchorage to a more convenient place within the harbor. After the first salvo, Niagara dipped its flag, as a signal that their warning was understood, but Belém fired again, an act Craven saw as a violation of Portuguese neutrality.[5]
To solve the tension, the commander of the Belém Tower was relieved, a new governor appointed, and the fort fired a 21-gun salute to the U.S. flag while Niagara stood by.[5]
20th century
[edit]World War II
[edit]War Plan Gray
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During World War II, the United States made a plan of a possible invasion and occupation of the Portuguese Azores. Approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 29 May, War Plan Gray called for a landing force of 28,000 troops, commanded by Major General Holland M. Smith, USMC, under Rear Admiral Ernest J. King, the Expeditionary commander.[6] The plan however never took place since Portugal agreed to an Allied request for use of air bases.
South China Sea raid
[edit]During the American raid in South China, the Portuguese colony of Macau was raided despite Portugal's neutrality. The main target was a stockpile of aviation fuel at the Macau Naval Aviation Center, which was reportedly set to be sold to the Japanese. Fort Dona Maria II was also attacked, possibly to destroy a nearby radio station. The raid caused damage to civilian areas and the harbor, killing two soldiers and several civilians.[7][8][9]
Following the raid on Macau, the Portuguese government protested the violation of its neutrality on 16 January. The US government issued an apology on 20 January,[9] and a court of inquiry was held.[10][11] In 1950, the United States compensated Portugal with $20.3 million for damage to Macau's harbor and other accidental raids in June 1945.[12]
Portuguese Colonial War
[edit]The United States first became involved in the Portuguese Colonial War in the early 1960s with their funding support of Holden Roberto.[13][14] However, since the Kennedy administration, the U.S. has maintained neutrality toward all liberation movements, with American officials denying rumors in Luanda of CIA backing for the FNLA.[14]
American plan to invade the Azores, 1975
[edit]Recently declassified documents have revealed that following Portugal's Carnation Revolution in 1974, the U.S. Department of Defense developed a secret contingency plan to take over the Azores islands. This plan was discussed in a January 22, 1975 meeting between Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger. At the time, the U.S. feared that the new Portuguese government might align with the Soviet Union.[15]
The Azores held strategic importance due to the U.S. use of the Lajes Air Base, particularly during crises like the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Although access to the base continued even after the base agreement expired in 1974.[15]
To avoid Portugal's fall into communism, the Pentagon prepared a secret plan to seize the Azores. Schlesinger even suggested that this could stimulate Azorean independence.[15]
In the end, the situation stabilized when Mário Soares led Portugal to free elections in 1976. A few months earlier, Kissinger told him that:
What you have done surprised me. I must admit this. I often don't make mistakes of judgment.[15]
Cais do Sodré incident
[edit]On October 12, 1989, around 400[16]–500[17] U.S. servicemen clashed with Portuguese police in a Lisbon red light district Wednesday night. At least 175 servicemen were arrested and later released,[16][17] while 142 were treated for injuries.[16][17]
The confrontation began in Cais do Sodré after a scuffle between a few American servicemen drew in police, attempting to restore order. The servicemen from the USS Nassau and two accompanying landing ships, reportedly resisted arrest and later gathered in front of a police station.[17] Police said:
They only dispersed when police reinforcements arrived and drove their cars into the crowd.[17]
Capt. John Brigstocke, commander of the British aircraft carrier Ark Royal docked in Lisbon, cut short a goodwill visit to avoid involving his crew in the confrontation. British sailors were briefly caught in the police cordons but were not injured.[17]
All 4,356 U.S. servicemen aboard the three vessels were confined to their ships while the incident was being investigated.[16][17]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Adams, C. F. (February 24, 2022). The Official Correspondence: The Claims of the United States in Respect to the Alabama. Bod Third Party Titles. p. 265. ISBN 9783752575040.
- ^ a b c d e State 1865, p. 541.
- ^ Office 1873, p. 228.
- ^ State 1865, p. 542.
- ^ a b c d e P. Chatelain, Neil (January 17, 2024). "When Portugal Bombarded a U.S. Warship to Protect a Confederate Ironclad!". Emerging Civil War.
- ^ "The Atlantic Crisis of 1941". Center For US Military History. Archived from the original on December 13, 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
- ^ Garrett 2010, pp. 96, 116.
- ^ Bailey 2007, p. 33.
- ^ a b Gunn 2016, p. 166.
- ^ Reynolds 1968, p. 297.
- ^ Gunn 2016, p. 168.
- ^ Garrett 2010, p. 116.
- ^ Noer, Thomas J. (1993). "International Credibility and Political Survival: The Ford Administration's Intervention in Angola". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 23 (4): 772. JSTOR 27551153.
- ^ a b Adelman, Kenneth L. (1975). "Report from Angola". Foreign Affairs. 53 (3): 568. doi:10.2307/20039527. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20039527.
- ^ a b c d Burr, William (November 19, 2010). "Document Friday: The US Military had "a contingency plan to take over" Portuguese Islands!?". unredacted.
- ^ a b c d Healy, Melissa (October 13, 1989). "A Rough Liberty for Sailors and Marines : Portugal: Police in Lisbon are accused of clubbing and kicking U.S. and British servicemen". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wise, Peter (October 13, 1989). "500 GIS RAMPAGE IN LISBON". The Washington Post.
Bibliography
[edit]- Office, U.S. (1873). Papers Relating to the Treaty of Washington [between the U.S. and Great Britain, May 8, 1871]. Vol. 3. U.S. Government Printing Office.
- State, U.S. (1865). Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. U.S. Department of State.
- Garrett, Richard J. (2010). The Defences of Macau: Forts, Ships and Weapons over 450 Years. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-9888028498.
- Bailey, Steven K. (2007). Strolling in Macau: A Visitor's Guide to Macau, Taipa, and Coloane. San Francisco: ThingsAsian Press. ISBN 978-0971594098.
- Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2016). "Epilogue". In Gunn, Geoffrey C. (ed.). Wartime Macau: Under the Japanese Shadow. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. pp. 166–177. ISBN 978-9888390519.
- Reynolds, Clark G. (1968). The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy. New York City: McGraw-Hill. OCLC 24906505.