Southern Esoteric Buddhism

Southern Esoteric Buddhism and Borān Kammaṭṭhāna are terms used to refer to a collection of esoteric practices, views, and texts within Theravada Buddhism. Often known as Esoteric Theravada or Tantric Theravada, these labels highlight its parallel with tantric traditions—though it does not employ actual tantras—and it is also sometimes referred to as Traditional Theravada Meditation.

L.S. Cousins defines this phenomenon as "a type of Southern Buddhism which links magical and ritual practices to a theoretical systematisation of the Buddhist path itself." One notable strand within these traditions is the Yogāvacara system. Historically, Yogāvacara was a major current in Southeast Asia and is most widely practiced today in Cambodia and Laos, where it has preserved many unique ritualistic and meditative practices.

In the West, the study of Southern Esoteric Buddhism was pioneered by professor François Bizot and his colleagues at the École française d'Extrême-Orient. Their research, especially focusing on material discovered at Angkor, has been instrumental in revealing the complex interplay between orthodox Theravada doctrines and these esoteric practices. In essence, Southern Esoteric Buddhism comprises a range of practices derived from the Pali Tipitaka that extend beyond the explicit teachings of the suttas, incorporating devotional, ritual, symbolic, and meditative elements that have been transmitted through local and esoteric traditions.

Over the past two centuries, the Boran tradition has been marginalized by colonial governments and by the "Protestant Buddhist" movement—reformers who promote a strict "Pali Tipitaka only" sola scriptura approach and dismiss local practices as deviations from orthodox scriptural teachings. As such, the tradition stands in opposition to Buddhist modernism and Secular Buddhism.

Etymology

The term Borān Kammaṭṭhāna is a combination of the Thai word โบราณ pronounced [bōːrāːn] meaning ancient or outdated, derived from the Sanskrit word "Purāṇa" along with the Pali word Kammaṭṭhāna meaning "place of work". Essentially, it refers to outdated and ancient spiritual practices.

History

Sri Lankan beginnings

• 
  Abhayagiri Dagoba at Anuradhapura built in the 2nd Century BC
• 
  Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, worshipped in Lanka today as Natha deva.
• 
  Ratnamali Yantra

Historically, the Buddhists of the Abhayagiri and Jetavanaramaya fraternities in Sri Lanka are known to have applied the Bodhisattva precepts and Tantric rituals in their practice and this might have had an influence on Southeast Asia through their missionary work in Java. According to Cousins, it is possible that Southern Esoteric Buddhism developed within the "orthodox" Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka, citing the 5th century Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa's mention of secret texts (gulhagantham), those being texts that can only transmitted through a guru-disciple relationship, as well as other textual evidence from the Pali commentaries. This shows that esotericism was prevalent in Theravada prior the 5th century AD.

One can also trace the present tradition of paritta chanting in Lanka to tantric traditions practised by mendicants of the Abhayagiri Vihara. Paritta chanting has an important social and ceremonial function in Sri Lanka. Similarly, the Sri Lankan Theravāda tradition is unique in developing and maintaining paritta bhanaka lineages dedicated to the oral transmission of parittas. While oral recitation lineages that once preserved the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Piṭaka texts from teacher to disciple have faded over time, the paritta transmission lineages have endured due to the essential role of oral transmission in conferring the power of specific texts upon disciples. This is not expounded upon in standard, academic Theravada. Likewise, some of these parittas are not included in the standard Pali Tipitaka.

The origin of yantra usage in the Theravada tradition as an aid to meditation can be said to come from the Abhayagiri sangha.

Cousins concludes that "It is quite possible that present-day Southern Esoteric Buddhism contains ideas and practices deriving from more than one of these sources. Nevertheless it is certainly premature to assume that it has its origins in unorthodox circles."

Among the last mendicants to be initiated into the Boran Kammatthana tradition in Sri Lanka was Doratiyāveye Thera who lived around 1900.

Southeast Asian influences

• 
  Cambodia Vajra
• 
  Hevajra, from the reign of Jayavarman 7th of Khmer Empire

Ari Buddhism was a form of Buddhism practiced in the Bagan kingdom of Burma which also contained Tantric elements borrowed from India and local Nat (spirit) and Nāga worship. In many of Bizot's works there is some suggestion that the Buddhism of the Mon may have influenced the later Yogāvacara tradition. Southeast Asian Theravada was heavily influenced by the practice of Vajrayana Buddhism which flourished in the region during the time of the Khmer Empire and Srivijaya, but it's most likely that Vedic esoteric practices may have already been present in these regions due to the Indianization of Southeast Asia.

Growth

The Yogāvacara tradition was a mainstream Buddhist tradition in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand well into the modern era. An inscription from Northern Thailand with esoteric elements has been dated to the Sukhothai Kingdom of the 16th century. Kate Crosby notes that this attestation makes the esoteric tradition earlier than “any other living meditation tradition in the contemporary Theravada world.”

During the reign of Rama I, the Thai Yogāvacara master Kai Thuean (1733-1823) was invited to Bangkok to be head of the meditation tradition there and was later made Sangharaja (head of the religious community) by Rama II of Siam in 1820. In Sri Lanka, a revival of Buddhist meditation in the 1750s saw a proliferation of Yogāvacara teachings and texts by Thai monks from the Ayutthaya Kingdom, one of which is the Yogāvacara's manual.

After the re-establishment of the Sri Lankan sangha by the venerable Upali Thera, Monks of the Siam Nikaya practiced and spread these teachings, establishing several monasteries around Kandy. As late as the 1970s, Yogāvacara practices such as the rapid repetition of Araham were recorded in Sri Lanka.

Decline (19th–20th century)

• 
  Seal of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya monastic order
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  King Mongkut in the white robes of a lay renunciant
• 
  Flag of Democratic Kampuchea

The decline of Southern Esoteric Buddhism began in the 19th century with the rise of reformed Buddhism, particularly the establishment of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya by King Rama IV (1851–1868) of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom in 1833. This reform movement emphasized the Pali Canon as the main authority for monastic practices and sought to eliminate superstitious and folk religious elements. The Dhammayuttika Nikaya was later introduced into Cambodia, then a protectorate of the Thai kingdom, further contributing to the decline of esoteric traditions.

The textual foundation of this reform movement was rooted in the Sri Lankan Mahavihara school, which had undergone its own reforms in the 12th century under Parakramabahu I. This school, heavily influenced by the works of the 5th-century scholar Buddhaghosa, was regarded as the orthodox interpretation of Theravāda Buddhism and viewed other Buddhist practices as unorthodox. The reforms reinforced monastic discipline, leading to a decline in esoteric Buddhist practices and the production of non-canonical texts.

Further suppression occurred under the French colonial empire, which ruled Cambodia and continued the policy of marginalizing pre-reform Cambodian Buddhism. Despite these efforts, traditional esoteric practices persisted in rural areas. However, the devastation caused by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and religious repression in Communist Laos inflicted additional damage on these traditions.

Legacy

• 
  Logo of the Samatha Trust
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  Logo of the Dhammakaya movement
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  Offering ceremony at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen

Southern Esoteric Buddhist influences may be present in the practices and views of the modern Thai Dhammakaya movement. As well as their mother temple, Wat Paknam. Though Wat Dhammakaya's claims of an "inner, true self" existing in the Dhammakaya are their own and do not come from any historical esoteric lineage. Likewise in the Thai Forest Tradition.

Among the practitioners of Boran Kammatthana in the West are Samatha Trust, an organization dedicated to promoting the older Samatha tradition of meditation.

Practices and concepts

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  Buddhist prayer beads used for mantra recitation.
• 
  Trinisinghe Yantra
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  Buddha amulets from Thailand

Esoteric Theravāda Lineage Chart

While lacking tantras, Boran Kammatthana retains extensive meditation manuals and esoteric practices. Cousins describes Southern Esoteric Buddhism as "tantro-kabbalistic" mysticism, characterized by mapping inner and outer worlds through elaborate correspondences—linking the human body, cosmos, and higher knowledge. This system integrates magic, sound and number symbolism, sacred gestures, and structured ritual patterns.

Key features of Yogāvacara and Boran Kammatthana practice include:

• Paritta Chanting – Recitation of parittas for protection and blessings.
• Energy Centers & Channels – Concepts such as cakra/marma and nadi.
• Esoteric Interpretation – Use of encoded Twilight language and symbolic meanings in Buddhist words, objects, myths, numbers, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Samaya Initiation – Essential guru-disciple transmission in Yogāvacara practice.
• Embryology Symbolism & Dhammakaya Meditation – Visualization of a 'Buddha within', culminating in Dhammakaya realization.
• Alchemy & Purification – Spiritual refinement modeled on mercury purification techniques.
• Magical Practices – Use of mantras, rituals, and spells for healing, longevity, and protection.
• Yantras & Sacred Scripts – Symbolic diagrams, cloth, Khom Thai script, and amulets used in rituals.
• Pujas & Sādhanās – Worship and ritual devotion to Buddhas, Devas, and spirits.
• The creation of stupas and pagoda replicas made out of sand
• Right-Hand & Left-Hand Paths – Internal and external applications of esoteric techniques.
• Monastic & Lay Participation – A path accessible to all practitioners, both monastics and laypersons.
• The singing of protective Gāthās
• Thai astrology
• The invocation of spirits and ghosts, including Somdej Toh and Mae Nak Along with Spirit houses
• Merit making ceremonies and events such as the Vessantara Festival
• Exorcisms like Sanni Yakuma

These practices are most commonly associated with Cambodian Buddhism but have historical roots in various Theravāda traditions across Southeast Asia. It also contains South Asian religious elements like protective tattoos, astrological practices, spirit invocation, and meditative visualization of sacred lights and syllables within the body.

Bizot's research highlights a rebirthing ritual involving a cave-as-womb metaphor, leading to the Dhammakaya transformation. Several studies by Bizot have examined certain "rebirthing" rituals that were common in pre-modern Cambodia. These rituals incorporated symbolic sacred syllables, meditation on embryonic development, and the belief that this practice would allow one's body to be reborn as the Dhammakaya.

Another practice studied by Bizot was the use of yantras or sacred diagrams, which were made with Pali words and phrases and used as tattoos and on clothing. These esoteric traditions also include visualization practices featuring colored lights paired with sacred syllables located throughout the body, culminating in visions of the Buddha and a stupa at the top of Mount Sumeru.

Mantras and sacred sound

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  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of NAMO BUDDHAYA.
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  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of MA A U.
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  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of SAMVIDHA PUKAYAPA.

Among the sacred mantras in Yogāvacara texts, "Namo Buddhaya" ("Homage to the Buddha") and "Araham" ("Worthy One") are widely used. The recitation of these sacred phrases was employed as a meditation practice.

The esoteric interpretation of "Namo Buddhaya" assigns mystical values to its syllables, linking them to familial and societal virtues:

• NA – the twelve virtues of the mother
• MO – the twenty-one virtues of the father
• BU – the six virtues of the king
• DDHA – the seven virtues of the family
• YA – the ten virtues of the teacher

Robert Percival, who was in Ceylon from 1796 to 1800, described Buddhist mantra meditation as follows: "To their girdles they wear suspended strings of beads made of a brownish or black wood; and mutter prayers as they go along."

The Saddavimala, a widely circulated Yogāvacara text, describes how practitioners rebuild themselves spiritually by internalizing Dhamma as bodily components, forming a new, immortal spiritual body that replaces the physical form at death. This process involves several key steps, which the yogavacara must undertake:

• Memorise the stages of the embryonic development (with their alphabetic equivalents) which form the stages of his own formation;
• Through these stages, build himself another body using the organs and constituents that are the letters, i.e. the portions of the Dhamma;
• Become conscious that this new body, which he is going to produce outside of himself, first takes form within him, in his stomach at the level of the navel, taking the form of a Buddha the height of a thumb;
• Pursue and achieve in this life the construction of this immortal vehicle, because it leads the person who possesses it to Nibbana, in that it takes the place of the spent physical form at the moment of death.

These esoteric practices remain most prevalent in Northern Thai and Cambodian Buddhism, where they integrate elements of Theravada and esoteric Buddhist traditions.

Regional variations and related traditions

• 
  A Baci ceremony in Vientiane, Laos
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  An altar depicting nats and weizza (Taw Bo Bo Aung, Bodaw Aung Mingaung), Mount Popa, Myanmar
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  A statue of a Ruesi at Wat Suan Tan in [Nan, Thailand]
• 
  Royal Brahmins performing a ceremony, mural painting from Temple of Emerald Buddha

In Cambodia and Laos, these methods are prevalent among forest monks and magicians, who are believed to possess supernormal abilities, including the divine eye and communication with spirits.

The practices of the Burmese Buddhist Weizza ("Wizards"), who follow an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha and alchemy) believed to lead to supernormal powers and even immortality, might also be related to Southern Esoteric Buddhism.

Today, practitioners using these techniques are most prevalent along the banks of the Mekong in Cambodia and Laos. These monks and magicians are believed to have the divine eye and the ability to communicate with spirits. They practice Kasina meditation, mantra recitation, and ascetic practices (dhutanga).

Thai forest monks such as Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo were also influenced by esoteric practices, as exemplified by his text *The Divine Mantra*.

In one text studied by Bizot, meditation includes visualization of colored lights paired with sacred syllables within the body, along with visions of the Buddha and a stupa atop Mount Sumeru. Another text, the Ratanamala, uses the itipi so formula for various purposes, including:

• Spiritual protection
• Magical 'worldly' applications ("left-hand path")
• Transformation of the body into a kayasiddhi, a spiritual body
• The pursuit of nirvana ("right-hand path")

Thus, while Boran Kammatthana lacks a direct tantric framework, it retains complex esoteric practices that align with other forms of Buddhist mysticism. The integration of mantra recitation, sacred symbolism, visualization, and ritual purification methods demonstrates its unique position within the broader landscape of Theravāda esotericism.

Thus, while Boran Kammatthana lacks a direct tantric framework, it retains complex esoteric practices that align with other forms of Buddhist mysticism. The integration of mantra recitation, sacred symbolism, visualization, and ritual purification methods demonstrates its unique position within the broader landscape of Theravāda esotericism.

Texts

Suvannasama Jataka in Khom Thai script

This is a list of texts that are important in various Theravāda traditions but have either been excluded from the standardized Pāli Tipiṭaka or are known primarily through oral transmission. Many are still used today in recitations, folk Buddhism, or esoteric meditation traditions.

Jataka and Narrative Texts

These texts contain moral and legendary stories—some related to the Buddha's previous lives—used in teaching and storytelling.

• Mahavamsa – A historical chronicle of Sri Lanka, composed in Pāli.
• Ramakien – Thai version of the Hindu epic Ramayana, adapted into a local Buddhist context.
• Paññāsa Jātaka – "Fifty Jātakas" preserved in the Thai and Lao traditions, often featuring regional themes.
• Jataka Poth Vahanse – Sri Lankan anthology of Jātaka tales with commentary.
• Sang Sinxay – Laotian poetic Jātaka-style epic attributed to the monk Pangkham.
• Manimekalai – Tamil Buddhist epic connected to Silappatikaram, emphasizes ethics and renunciation.
• Kundalakesi – Tamil poetic Buddhist drama that debates nihilism and Jainism.

Esoteric and Meditative Manuals

Manuals used in advanced or oral meditation systems, including Yogāvacara and other tantric-inflected methods.

• The Divine Mantra – Manual describing a short but powerful Pāli mantra practice.
• Dhammānudhammapaṭipatti – Treatise on practicing in line with the Dhamma.
• Yogāvacara's manual – Esoteric Sri Lankan manual that teaches visualizations and breath practices.
• Amatākaravaṇṇanā – A detailed 18th-century Sinhala manual compiled by disciples of Thai meditation teachers, foundational to Esoteric Theravāda.

Protective and Ritual Texts

Used in paritta chanting, blessings, healing, and apotropaic (protective) ceremonies.

• Uṇhissavijaya Sutta – Rare protective chant included in the Lao Canon, with Mahāyāna parallels.
• Jinapañjara Gāthā – Thai Pāli chant for spiritual protection, widely memorized.
• Dhammakāyānussati Gāthā – Gatha reflecting on the Dhamma-body, used in some Thai traditions.
• Mahādibbamanta – A large and obscure mantra or protective incantation.
• Saddavimala – Protective text or hymn recited in some ritual settings.
• Ratanamala – Hymn of praise sometimes classified as a paritta.
• Piruwana Poth Wahanse – A Sri Lankan compilation of parittas, including rare verses like Narasiha Gatha and Jalananda Paritta.
• Tiruvempavai and Tiruppavai – Tamil devotional hymns used by the Thai royal Brahmins during annual rituals.

Doctrinal and Philosophical Texts

Important regional scholastic works or commentaries on Theravāda Dhamma.

• Saddhammopāyana – A Pāli text of doctrinal importance.
• Saddharmarathnakaraya – A Sinhalese philosophical treatise expounding the Dhamma.
• Ākāravattārasutta – Doctrinal sutta preserved in some regional recensions.
• Kappālaṅkāra – Lesser-known text concerning Dhamma ornamentation or cosmology.

Buddhas, Deities and Spirits

This is a list of Buddhas, deities, dharmapālas, and spirits emphasized in local or folk traditions of Boran Kammatthana and popular Theravāda Buddhism. These figures are not often not emphasized in canonical Pali Tipitaka texts but are widely venerated through oral traditions, protective rites, and devotional practices in Southeast Asia.

• 
  Bhairava, venerated in Thailand as Phra Pirab.
• 
  Cambodian Hevajra yantra.

Commonly Venerated Figures

• Four Heavenly Kings – Protective deities who guard the four cardinal directions in Buddhist cosmology.
• Vibhishana – Brother of Ravana from the Ramayana; regarded as a guardian deity in Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.
• Kataragama deviyo – A regional form of Murugan, venerated by both Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus.
• Hanuman – Avatar of Shiva and devotee of Rama; incorporated in Buddhist and folk rituals.
• Shiva – Known in Thai Buddhism as Phra Isuan, sometimes identified with guardian roles.
• Ganesha – Called Phra Phikanet in Thailand; invoked for wisdom and obstacle removal.
• Upulvan – Local Sri Lankan form of Vishnu or Varuna, honored as a dharmapāla.
• Samantabhadra – Revered in Sri Lanka under the name Sumana Saman.
• Avalokiteśvara – Known as Kwan Im in Thailand, Natha Deva in Sri Lanka, and Lawka Nat (လောကနတ်) in Myanmar.
• Bhaisajyaguru – The Medicine Buddha; known as Phra Kring in Thai tradition.
• Bhairava – Fierce protective deity venerated by Muay Thai fighters and tantric adepts.
• Hevajra – A tantric yidam central to Cambodian esoteric Buddhism.
• Manimekhala – Sea goddess and guardian of mariners.
• Phra Phrom – Thai adaptation of the Hindu god Brahma, often worshipped for protection and wisdom.
• Rahu – Astral deity associated with eclipses and fate; invoked in astrology-based rituals.
• Ganga – River goddess venerated in both Hindu and Buddhist contexts.
• Hariti – Originally a yakshini, later transformed into a protector of children in Mahāyāna and Theravāda traditions.
• Trailokyavijaya – Wrathful protector in esoteric Buddhist pantheon.
• Sarasvati – Goddess of knowledge and arts, known as Thurathadi in Burma.
• Suvannamaccha – Mermaid daughter of Ravana in Thai folklore, often honored in local rituals.
• Jatukham Rammathep – A syncretic guardian deity popularized in southern Thailand in modern times.

Sri Lankan Deities and Figures

• Pattini – Tamil goddess Kannaki Amman, worshipped as a protector and healer.
• Dedimunda deviyo – Warrior deity believed to be an attendant of Vessavana.
• Suniyam – Protective deity invoked in exorcism and justice rituals.
• Ayyanayake – Local forest and guardian spirit, possibly linked with Tamil Aiyanar worship.

Thai Deities and Spirits

• Siam Devadhiraj – Tutelary spirit of Thailand, protector of the nation.
• Phi Fa – Spirit associated with healing rituals; sometimes compared to a Dakini.
• Phra Mahachai Phraisop – God of rice, seen as an emanation of Vishnu.
• Phosop – Rice goddess, often equated with Lakshmi in Thai folklore.
• Nang Kwak – Household deity believed to bring luck and commercial success.
• Phra Mae Thorani – Earth goddess who aided the Buddha; invoked in merit-making.
• Kru Kai Kaew
• Pu Sae and Ya Sae
• Thepphanom – Angelic beings portrayed in wai posture, symbolizing devotion and protection.

Other Southeast Asian Deities

• 37 Great Nats – Burmese spirit deities incorporated into local Buddhist cosmology.
• Popa Medaw – Protective yakshini of Mount Popa; venerated in nat shrines.
• Ta Eisey – Cambodian forest hermit sage, linked to Brahmanic ascetic traditions.
• Yeay Mao – Cambodian spirit guardian of travelers and protector of the land.

Major figures in Borān Kammaṭṭhāna

Here is a list of figures that have been praised in local Theravada Buddhist traditions on account of their extraordinary saintliness and powers.

• 
  Statue of Bo Bo Aung, a famed Burmese Weizza or spiritual adept.
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  The Kyaikhtisaung Sayadaw delivering a Dhamma talk.
• 
  Somdej Phra Buddhacarya (Toh Brahmaramsi), an influential Thai monk.
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  Khruba Siwichai, saint of Northern Thai Buddhism.

Legendary Figures

These figures appear in hagiographies, Jātaka-style legends, and local lore, often embodying miraculous events or supernatural abilities:

• Phra Sangkajai – Known for his wisdom and corpulent appearance, sometimes mistaken for the Chinese Laughing Buddha.
• Gavampati - Known as Phra Pidta in Thailand.
• Upagupta – A prominent figure in Southeast Asian folklore; called Shin Upagutta in Burma and invoked for protection against evil.
• Sīvali – Venerated for his unmatched merit and blessings; often worshipped to attract wealth and fortune.
• Phra Malai – A mythical monk who journeyed to heaven and hell; widely featured in apocalyptic and visionary literature like the *Phra Malai Klon Suat*
• Sudeva

Burmese Mystics and Ascetics

Myanmar's spiritual landscape includes many holy men who practiced extreme asceticism or alchemical meditation:

• Zawgyi – Semi-mythical alchemist and forest wizard, prominent in Burmese folklore.
• Setkya Min – Prince and figure in Burmese millenarianism, believed to be a future Buddha or messianic leader.
• Shin Iza Gawna – Mystic who lived in mountain caves and transmitted meditation teachings.
• Bo Bo Aung – Famed Weizza (esoteric adept) believed to have achieved supernatural longevity.
• Bo Min Gaung – Spiritual successor of Bo Bo Aung; claimed to have performed miracles.
• Kyaikhtisaung Sayadaw – Burmese monk credited with restoring ancient pagodas and known for miracles and charisma.
• Linn Nhyo Taryar – Modern spiritual figure known for trance healing and mass ordinations.
• U Khandi – Hermit monk who helped rebuild pagodas and was highly respected by both laypeople and royals.

Thai Buddhist Masters

These Thai monks are revered for their meditative attainments and for founding meditation schools and temples:

• Luang Pu Thuat – Semi-legendary monk known for miraculous deeds such as turning seawater into fresh water.
• Kai Thuean – Forest meditation monk known for cultivating inner energy (*barami*).
• Somdej Toh – Architect of many Thai chants; famous for his amulets and deep scriptural knowledge.
• Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro – Reviver of the Dhammakaya meditation tradition in central Thailand.
• Ajahn Lee Dhammadaro – Key figure in the Thai Forest Tradition, student of Ajahn Mun.

Northern Thai and Lanna Buddhist Saints

Northern Thailand (Lanna region) produced several saints whose fame spread across the region and into Laos:

• Khruba Siwichai – Iconic reformer and builder monk who renovated temples across northern Thailand.
• Phra Khuva Boonchum – Contemporary meditation master known for extended forest retreats and prophetic teachings.

Important sites

While not mentioned in the Pali Canon, these sites often reflect the syncretic blend of animism, Hinduism, and esoteric or tantric practices alongside orthodox Buddhist devotion. These are a list of pilgrimage or sacred sites that hold significant importance in the local Theravāda Buddhist traditions.

Sri Lankan and Indian pilgrimage sites

• Sri Pada – A sacred mountain believed to bear the footprint of the Buddha by Buddhists, Shiva by Hindus, Adam by Muslims, and St. Thomas by Christians.
• Sri Dalada Maligawa – Also known as the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic in Kandy, it houses what is believed to be the tooth relic of the Buddha and is one of the most venerated Buddhist shrines in Sri Lanka.
• Ruhuṇu Kataragama Dēvālaya – A major pilgrimage site dedicated to the deity Kataragama (Skanda/Murugan), worshipped by both Buddhists and Hindus.
• Koneswaram Temple – A coastal Hindu temple in Trincomalee with historical Buddhist associations; the site reflects overlapping Saivite and Buddhist traditions.
• Lankatilaka Vihara – A Buddhist temple that exhibits both Buddhist and Hindu architectural elements and iconography.
• Tenavaram temple – A historical coastal shrine complex blending Buddhist and Hindu devotional practices, formerly dedicated to Vishnu.
• Maha Saman Devalaya – A shrine in Ratnapura devoted to the deity Saman, a guardian figure in Sinhala Buddhism considered a protector of the Buddha's teachings.
• Halpe Pattini Devalaya – A shrine dedicated to the goddess Pattini, associated with fertility, health, and justice, incorporated into folk Buddhist worship.
• Lindamulla Pattini Devalaya – Another major temple for the goddess Pattini, where rituals blend Buddhist piety with goddess cult traditions.
• Nawagamuwa Pattini Devalaya – A prominent Pattini temple with origins dating back to ancient times, attracting devotees of all faiths.
• Natha Devale – Dedicated to the bodhisattva Natha (Maitreya), also associated with Hindu deity Vishnu in local tradition.
• Barandi Kovil – A Tamil temple believed to reflect both Hindu and local Buddhist protective cults.
• Chudamani Vihara – A Buddhist vihara in Nagapattinam, India, with historical ties to Sri Lankan Theravāda traditions and maritime pilgrimages.

Burmese and Southeast Asian sacred sites

• Mandalay Hill – A major pilgrimage destination in Myanmar believed to have been visited by the Buddha, offering panoramic views and numerous monasteries.
• Mount Popa – A sacred extinct volcano associated with Burmese nats (spirits), often syncretized with local Buddhist cosmology.
• Taung Kalat – A Buddhist monastery atop a volcanic plug near Mount Popa, also associated with nat worship.
• Kyaiktiyo Pagoda – Also known as the Golden Rock, this gravity-defying boulder is a prominent Burmese pilgrimage site believed to be balanced by a strand of the Buddha’s hair.
• Wat Rakhangkhositaram – A royal Thai temple known for housing revered relics and historically significant monks.
• Wat Suthat – One of Bangkok’s oldest temples, featuring a large bronze Buddha image and influenced by Brahmanic ceremonial traditions.
• Thewasathan Bot Phram – A Brahmin temple in Bangkok that houses images of Hindu gods and serves as a ceremonial site for Thai royal rituals.
• Erawan Shrine – A popular urban shrine in Bangkok dedicated to the Hindu god Brahma, frequented by Buddhists and tourists alike.
• Sri Maha Mariamman Temple – A Hindu temple in Thailand that draws local Buddhist devotees, particularly women, seeking blessings from the goddess Mariamman.
• Preah Ang Chek Preah Ang Chorm shrine – Cambodian shrine honoring local guardian spirits, often syncretized with Buddhist devotional rituals.
• Bayon – The richly decorated state temple of the Mahayana Buddhist King Jayavarman VII in Cambodia, famous for its massive smiling faces.
• Preah Vihear Temple – A mountain temple dedicated to Shiva that reflects a blend of Hindu and Theravāda Buddhist religious usage over time.
• Preah Khan – A temple built by Jayavarman VII, functioning both as a Mahayana Buddhist monastery and Hindu temple.
• Ta Prohm – Known for its picturesque tree-covered ruins, originally a Buddhist monastery and university later merged with Hindu imagery.
• Banteay Kdei – A Buddhist temple in Angkor built during the reign of Jayavarman VII, reflecting late Mahayana and early Theravāda transitions.
• Mangalartha – A small Hindu temple in Angkor, dedicated to a deified royal priest and displaying syncretism with early Buddhist symbolism.
• Terrace of the Leper King – Part of Angkor Thom, believed to be associated with Yama, the god of death, reflecting Hindu-Buddhist cosmological overlap.
• Borobudur – A massive Mahayana Buddhist monument in Java, Indonesia, designed as a mandala and reflecting tantric influences in Southeast Asian Buddhism.

See also

• Buddhism in Myanmar
• Buddhism in Cambodia
• Buddhism in Thailand
• Buddhism in Laos
• Pali literature
• Kammaṭṭhāna
• Vajrayana
• Tantra
• Achar (Buddhism)
• Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
• Azhaliism

Sources

• Mettanando Bhikkhu (1999), Meditation and Healing in the Theravada Buddhist Order of Thailand and Laos, Hamburg (Ph.D. thesis).
• Woodward, EL. (1916), Manual of a Mystic being a translation from the Pali and Sinhalese Work entitled The Yogavachara's Manual, Pali Text Society, London, reprint 1982, ISBN 0-86013-003-7.
• Bernon, Olivier de (2000). Le manuel des maîtres de kammaṭṭhān : étude et présentation de rituels de méditation dans la tradition du bouddhisme khmer (Ph.D. thesis)
• Bizot F (1976). Le figuier à cinq branches, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer I, PEFEO, vol.CVI1, park
• Bizot F (1980), 'La grotte de la naissance', Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer II, BEFEO, vol.LXVI1: 222–73, Paris.
• Bizot F (1981a). Le don de soi-même, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer III, PEFEO, vol.CXXX, Paris. ISBN 2-85539-730-8.
• Bizot F (1988), Les traditions de la pabbajja en Asie du Sud-Est, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer IV, Gijttingen. ISBN 3-525- 82454-8.
• Bizot F (1992). Le Chemin de Lankā, Textes bouddhiques du Cambodge no.f4, Collection de Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris. ISSN 1150-2177, ISBN 2-85539-301-9.
• Bizot, F & E Lagirarde (1996). La pureté par les mots (Saddavimālā), Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris, Chiang Mai. ISSN 1150-2177. ISBN 9782855 393049.
• Crosby,Kate (2013) Traditional Theravada Meditation and its Modern-Era Suppression Hong Kong: Buddha Dharma Centre of Hong Kong ISBN 9881682029
• Crosby, Kate (2019). Abhidhamma and Nimitta in Eighteenth-century Meditation Manuscripts from Sri Lanka: a Consideration of Orthodoxy and Heteropraxy in Boran Kammaṭṭhāna.
• Davids, Thomas William Rhys ed. (1896), The Yogavacara's manual of Indian mysticism as practised by Buddhists, London: PTS, Oxford University Press
• Foxeus, N. (2013). Esoteric Theravada Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, 25, 55–79. https://doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67433
• Foxeus, N. (2016). "I am the Buddha, the Buddha is Me": Concentration Meditation and Esoteric Modern Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Numen, 63(4), 411–445
• Skilton, Andrew & Choompolpaisal, Phibul (2016). The Ancient Theravāda Meditation System, Borān Kammaṭṭhāna: Ānāpānasati or 'Mindfulness of The Breath' in Kammatthan Majjima Baeb Lamdub.

External Links

General Resources on Esoteric and Theravāda Buddhism

• Esoteric Theravada | Southern Esoteric Buddhism
• Buddha Magic – Articles on Thai amulets, rituals, and esoteric history.
• Dharma Thai – Thai Buddhism and magic-related resources.
• Saiyasat – Thai esoteric and magical practices.
• Lersi Thai Hermit Path – Archived site on Thai hermits and spiritual practice.
• The Thai Occult – Thai magical traditions, amulets, and occult practices.
• Saengthai – Thai traditional religious rituals and dhamma talks.

Monasteries and Meditation Centers

• Abhayagiri Monastery – Thai Forest Tradition monastery in the U.S.
• Samatha Trust – British meditation organization teaching samatha-vipassana techniques.
• Meditation 101 On-Line Dhammakaya Meditation Center
• Patana.org – Buddhist teachings and retreats.

Individual Teachers and Practitioners

• Suvaco Bhikkhu – Blog of a Theravāda monk with esoteric interests.
• Santidhammo – Reflections and writings of a Buddhist monk.

Amulets and Ritual Arts

• Naresuan Thai Amulet
• Dhammayut Amulet
• MyBuddha101 – Amulets, Buddhist talismans, and devotional objects.

Chanting and Pali Resources

• Itipiso.org – Pali chanting, Buddhist texts, and devotional practice.
• Buddho Foundation – Mindfulness and mantra-based practice inspired by the "Buddho" method.