Transnational cinema in India

Indian transnational cinema refers to the various ways films made in India engage with or operate as a cultural product across national borders, encompassing aspects of production, distribution, exhibition, and reception beyond the country's geographical boundaries. Beyond Bollywood, this phenomenon includes films from various Indian language industries and encompasses both mainstream commercial features and independent productions. Particularly with independent film, the industry has experienced a "transnational turn" in the 21st century, transcending a traditional national cinema framework.

Mainstream vs. arthouse cinema

Mainstream popular Indian cinema has been described as legitimately national in its hermetic political, aesthetic, and effective economy. They are often characterized by melodrama overflowing with songs and dances, a hybrid formation including joyful factors, typical conversations, happy endings, and an escapist tendency to avoid serious social issues. These are described as all-encompassing Masala films, after the spice mix concoction, a cinema of interruptions or 'attractions' with predictable narratives and musical interludes. These films can be classified by central narratives like action-revenge, crime-suspense, romance, family saga, mythological, and the 'social' melodrama. Salim-Javed duo were the ones to pioneer this genre. Some of the most influential early masala films would be Zanjeer (1973), Deewar (1975), Sholay (1975), Trishul (1978), Don (1978), all starring Amitabh Bachchan as an angry, young and flawed protagonist with sharp, punchy dialogs, which are still quoted today. Arthouse cinema became prominent as an independent genre in India in the 1950s. Art films are often considered grounded in realism codes and originated in the State of West Bengal. Satyajit Ray is the pioneer of parallel cinema. These films are often produced in regional languages and can be less known domestically in regions speaking other languages though they may have appeal abroad, with Ray's films becoming recognized as classics at home partly though the pizza effect. Some of the early arthouse films that shaped the movement are Pather Panchali (1955), Aparajito (1956), Meghe Dhaka Tara (1960), Ankur (1974), Jaane Bhi Do Yaaro (1983), etc.

Satyajit Ray, the pioneer of parallel cinema

Global appeal

Appeal within the Indian diaspora

Films often feature the Indian diaspora as narrative subjects, depicting figures returning to their homeland, which symbolically diminishes the psychic-cultural distance between their home and host nations. This transnational theme frequently serves to reinscribe the national, portraying idealized village ties or the immigrant's longing for the nation's core, elevating and authenticating the national within a global context. Films like Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge, Pardes, Kal Ho Naa Ho, and Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham exemplify this trend, staging familial devotion and wealth, often combined with world travel sequences, reimagining the East-West binary and reasserting a national identity anchored in exaggerated valuations of the Indian family. Bollywood is described as creating both an ideal homeland and an idealized Non-Resident Indian (NRI) figure for the diaspora, presenting "Indianness" itself as a cultural value that mediates other questions of identity or political affiliation.

However, it's noted that the diaspora is not a uniform entity, and variations in historical trajectories and economic conditions mean film success is not uniformly replicated across all segments. Regional cinemas are also significant within the diaspora, catering to ethno-linguistically segmented markets.

Tamil films have a prime market among the large number of Tamil immigrants settled in Singapore, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. Malayalam films dominate in Gulf countries, supported by capital from migrants from Kerala who reside there. Punjabi cinema also speaks to the transnational migrant longing for the lost rural country. It has a huge overseas market in Canada, a country with a large Punjabi diaspora community. Overseas production rights for regional films, such as Tamil films for Singapore and Malaysia, are sold following their completion.

Appeal outside the diaspora

Indian cinema's success, especially Bollywood's, overseas is mapped in scattered parts of the world, including Africa, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Soviet Union. Glimpses of resonance have been observed among non-diasporic communities in countries like Egypt, Greece, Israel, Nigeria, Russia, Tibet, and Turkey.

Hindi films have been popular in the former Soviet Union since the 1950s and continue to be highly regarded in Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Dubbed Indian films are popular in Ghana and the Cameroons in West Africa. An Indonesian television channel features a weekly program of Indian films, despite a relatively small Indian resident population there. The film Awaara is cited as having potentially outdone any Hollywood film in terms of sheer viewing numbers in its time. The Tamil film Muthu came directly to Japan from Tamil Nadu via Singapore. The musical Bombay Dreams, with music by A.R. Rahman, touched the hearts of both North American and Japanese audiences. SS Rajamouli's RRR was also a massive success in Japan. The other examples include breakout successes like Dangal, Bajrangi Bhaijaan, Andhadun, Secret Superstar and Hindi Medium in a non-traditional Indian movie market overseas, like China.

Satellite era and global reach

Technologies like satellite television contribute to the rapid infiltration of Indian cinema into the outside world. Overseas production rights are sold for distribution in countries with large Indian populations like Singapore and Malaysia and channels in countries such as Indonesia, Ghana, and Cameroon air Indian films, sometimes dubbed, suggesting a global distribution facilitated by such technologies.

Transnationalism in content

Diasporic narratives and NRI stories

After liberalization in the 1990s, films began featuring the diasporic figure, often portraying them journeying back to the homeland. This reasserted nationhood through its "prodigal children" returning to their roots. Films like Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge use the diaspora as a space where values may be contested, but ultimately maintain "Indian values" triumphantly. Bollywood romanticizes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) for the home audience and India for the diaspora. Films like Loins of Punjab Presents satirize NRI and diasporic culture. This focus on the diaspora re-inscribed the national, seen as a sign of continuity rather than rupture, reimagining immigrant longing for the homeland as the nation's core.

Engaging global topics and social issues

Some independent films specifically tackle social issues that may be barred from mainstream cinema or address contemporary struggles. For example, Onir's omnibus film I Am confronts issues like childhood abuse, homophobic violence resulting from the criminalization of homosexuality, single motherhood, and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits. The film Nasir focuses on the challenges faced by a Muslim man in contemporary India.

Imagining a global India

Films like Dil Se, Kal Ho Naa Ho, and Guru export an image of Indianness that negotiates tensions between homeland and diaspora. Bollywood contributes to imagining a global India and challenges understandings of cinema in a world reinvented by global media. It appeals effectively and ideologically to its transnational audiences, extending the cultural authority and political significance of the nation. Bollywood's representations can create a sense of solidarity among diverse ethnic Indians and show Indians as exemplary.

Transnational production and distribution

Evolving role of the Indian producer

Up until the 1990s, the Indian film industry witnessed a continuous influx of new producers who often lacked experience and training in film production and distribution. This era was also characterized by a rise in "black money" and corruption, which made film production an attractive option for independent producers and investors seeking to launder their illegal funds.

The role of the Indian producer has been evolving, particularly within the realm of independent and transnational cinema. The traditional understanding of a producer, often associated primarily with being a financier, is being transcended by a new breed of producer who is deeply artistic and actively participates in the filmmaking process.

These producers are driven by a passion for storytelling and a desire to create offbeat narratives that differ from mainstream films. They actively engage in collaborating with producers and creative individuals across the world. Their work involves extensive human interaction, community-building, and even the management of "affects". As creative collaborators, they read and develop scripts, offering notes, feedback, and engaging in debates at all stages of production. They see this as an "art form" aimed at adding value and uplifting the vision of the film. Producers describe this approach as hands-on, involved in building teams, scouting locations, casting, editing, and sound design, and engaging in discussions to encourage different perspectives. Some producers even take on roles akin to assistant directors when needed and may see themselves as "directorial producers."

This new generation of Indian creative producers is often a product of the global network of international film festivals, funds, and industry events in the post-globalized era. They participate in international talent development programs and co-production markets. The producer's job involves pitching films at various festivals and markets, which requires creatively telling the "story of the story" for marketing and distribution purposes. They emphasize that creativity is an essential part of their jobs, manifesting in many forms of participation at every level of filmmaking.

Globally funded films

Several films exemplify this model of transnational production and funding, often aiming for international film festivals and markets rather than immediate mainstream success:

• Nasir: This Tamil-language film is cited as the first Indo-Dutch co-production in that language. Its transnational journey began at the Indian Film Bazaar's co-production market and the Open Pitch program. It received grants from the Netherlands Film Fund and Hubert Bals Fund. It went on to win an award at the International Film Festival Rotterdam. However, it faced challenges getting censored and released by a major streaming platform in India due to its content.
• I Am: This cycle of four films by director Onir and producer Sanjay Suri was financed through crowd-sourced contributions from individuals referred to as "producers" and "owners". The films address social issues often barred from mainstream cinema and utilize top-level talent to help them circulate among broader audiences, potentially appealing to non-Indian spectators ("beyond India"). This project is seen as remaking production cultures by embedding identity projects into new collaborative configurations.
• The Lunchbox: Mentioned as an internationally co-produced film associated with producer Guneet Monga. Despite its success, the French co-producer of the film noted that a major Bollywood production company, Dharma Productions reaped financial rewards from its success, not the independent producers. Monga also revealed having to sell her house while co-producing another film, Monsoon Shootout, highlighting the financial precarity.
• Sir: A French co-produced film that earned awards and was distributed on streaming platforms.

Other examples include films by diasporic filmmakers like Mira Nair (Salaam Bombay!, The Namesake, Mississippi Masala, Monsoon Wedding), and films that utilize international locations or draw from international influences. Regional cinemas like Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam also have significant overseas markets, supported by diaspora populations and capital from migrants. A lot of regional films have been remade in Hindi, demonstrating regional-national-transnational connections.

Debates and challenges

Production challenges

Financial instability and precarity

The Indian film industry is dominated by big-budget popular Bollywood films and established production houses. This creates a high-risk production environment for independent cinema. Producers often operate in precarious working conditions despite their efforts. Many creative producers do not have money to invest in their films and rely on partial state support, international funds, grants, and equity from Indian financiers or "angel investors". The work often does not provide sufficient financial support to sustain them, leading most interviewed producers to have other means of generating income, such as alternative businesses or consulting jobs. Guneet Monga, a well-known producer, confessed to living a simple life and depending on consulting. Brice Poisson, a French co-producer of Sir, noted that despite the film earning awards and being sold to streaming platforms, he did not recoup his financial investment and resulted in debt. Monga even had to sell her house when co-producing Monsoon Shootout (2013).

Personal sacrifice and emotional labor

Producers are often driven by passion, creativity, and community-building. They invest significant "immaterial labor", including creative contributions, project management, and importantly, emotional management of themselves and others within multicultural crews, and interpersonal communication. This emotional labor is described as a largely neglected, invisible, and unseen part of their job. While the work can be intellectually and creatively stimulating and highly gratifying, the rewards entail a high cost, both emotionally and materially. Monga felt emotionally exhausted and contemplated leaving the industry after the success of The Lunchbox. Producers unanimously believe their work is greatly undervalued financially.

Lack of domestic reach and uncertain overseas success

Independent films that go to international film festivals are often not released in India, which can be emotionally shattering for producers. Guneet Monga highlighted her inability to distribute her films in India despite international recognition. The sources discuss The Lunchbox (2013) as an internationally co-produced film by Monga, and her contemplation of leaving the industry after its success because she was unable to distribute her films domestically. While international recognition is possible, commercial success overseas is not guaranteed unless films navigate distribution channels effectively, which are often controlled by major corporations. Poisson's experience with Sir shows that even selling to streaming platforms and receiving critical acclaim may not lead to recouping financial investment.

Challenges of international co-productions

While international co-productions offer potential for soft money, structured production, and networking, they also bring challenges like increased budgets and timelines, work-culture differences, and human relationship and team management issues. There is a mismatch between the funding and distribution structures in India and Europe, making collaborations difficult. Indian producers often need to sell films quickly for investors, which is not always feasible in the Indian market compared to slower exploitation in Europe. Work culture differences are noted, with anecdotes about differing paces and efficiencies. It is also uncommon for a first-time filmmaker to receive international grants and funding, and the labor involved in applying for grants is often unpaid.

Censorship and political challenges

State control and censorship

The state shapes and controls the industry through various policies and media regulations, including censorship guidelines. Social issues are sometimes barred from mainstream cinema either explicitly through censorship (certification, classification, cutting) or implicitly by dismissing such films as "content-oriented cinema".

Ideological and political content

Films exploring politically sensitive or ideologically charged content face difficulties. For example, Nasir (2020), an Indo-Dutch co-production focusing on the challenges of a Muslim man in contemporary India, was declined by Netflix and failed to get a censorship certificate from the Indian government due to its ideological content. Films dealing with sub-nationalist movements, particularly related to Kashmir and Muslim minorities, became "fecund ground" for exploring these issues, sometimes consolidating Hindu-nationalist outrage or venting against Muslim minorities.

Challenging social norms and identities

My Brother... Nikhil (2005) had to bury the degree to which it was based on a true story due to censorship. I Am (2010), an omnibus film, confronts social issues barred from mainstream cinema, including the confusing effects of childhood abuse (I Am Abhimanyu), homophobic violence (I Am Omar), beliefs about motherhood (I Am Afia), and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits (I Am Megha) I Am Omar specifically confronts police violence against a gay couple, linking it to the previous criminalization of homosexuality and depicting a policeman who is a representative of a right-wing political party (BJP).

See also

• Indian Parallel Cinema
• Masala film
• Cinema of India
• List of highest-grossing Indian films in overseas markets
• Transnationalism
• Pan-Indian film