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Touch starvation

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Touch starvation, also known as touch deprivation or skin hunger is the physiological need by humans and other species for physical contact with their own species or other living beings.[1][2][3] Its prolonged absence can have severe and potentially traumatic impacts on an individual's emotional, physical, and/or mental well-being.[1][4] It can both lead to and be exacerbated by loneliness and existing depressive symptoms.[4][5] Though non-human replacement methods and therapies are thought to provide some alternative or supplemental physical benefit, lack of physical human contact is believed by most experts to be severely harmful to one's confidence, emotional regulation, and self image, most crucially during the early childhood development window.[5][6][7][8]

Biological explanation

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A red and white Holstein Friesian heifer licking its calf

Touch is often referred to as the "mother of all the senses," due to it being the first sense to develop (the only one to develop in the womb), and arguably one of if not the most critical to human development.[9][10][11] At birth, humans receive all sensory input from their skin, and constantly require new feedback in order to support the proper biochemical development of the brain.[9][11] Ashley Montagu was the first to argue against the predominant view that animals lick their young immediately after birth in order to groom them; he posited, rather, that close, consistent physical contact served to stimulate the infants respiratory and digestive systems.[9][12] Without such stimulation, they would otherwise die.[9][12] Humans receive this stimulation in the womb and birth canal, and thus don't require such devoted attention upon birth.[9][13] The pleasurable experience of positive affective touch has, in recent decades, been attributed to a nerve fiber known as the C-tactile (CT) afferent; it's found in hairy skin and observes a preferential reaction to stimuli from other people.[14] Reciprocal touch and social interaction are critical to the biological function of most all complex life in much the same way as food or water. Helen Colton first made this point in 1983, stating that humans are born with "an intense 'skin hunger.'"[9][15] Their work cited the 1966 scholarship of Sidney Jourard which "suggested that Americans are raised to think that touch must be either aggressive or sexual," and thus were hesitant to openly engage in positive physical contact with anyone other than sexual partners.[9][15][16]

Social 'craving'

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Social interaction acts as a "primary reward" in social animals, and its restriction can cause altered or depressed behavior.[4] A 2020 study published in Nature Neuroscience found a distinction between the striatal and cortical regions' responses to social vs. nutritional/appetitive craving (meaning the two do not originate from the same source).[4] It further found that deprivation narrows the window of motivation, leading researchers to conclude that social isolation leads to social-craving (and thus, eventually, 'social-starvation') in much the same way that abstaining from food/nutrition induces regular 'hunger' and thus, eventually, 'starvation'.[4]

Look up tactile, haptic, skin hunger, anxiogenic, or affective touch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Along the same line of reasoning, prolonged abstinence or restriction from physical contact can lead to similar consequences. Touch from another person (or, to a lesser extent, other living creatures) sends signals from the skin to the vagus nerve which triggers the release of oxytocin, serotonin, and dopamine in the brain.[5][17][18] This in turn helps to reduce stress through the inhibition of and restriction on the production of cortisol, which regulates stress.[18] A person's blood pressure is reduced and their heart rate and nervous system slow.[17] Physical contact is critical to the development of social bonds and relationships on some level in almost every culture worldwide; its absence for long periods of time, even when offset by social interaction in other spheres, can have serious consequences on a person's emotional regulation and stress-hormone balance, with psychological damage building over extended periods of restriction.[5][13]

Individuals with greater sensitivity to touch, such as special needs or neurodivergent persons (especially children), trauma victims, veterans, survivors of sexual or physical abuse, or hypochondriacs may be averse to physical contact or wish to restrict it to certain degrees, persons, or parts of the body.[3][8][19][20][21] Unwanted touch can thus sometimes have the opposite of its generally assumed effect, triggering severe anxiety, stress, or fear, in some cases to such a degree that it produces a fight-or-flight response.[20][21][22][23] Therapy for these individuals is nonetheless suggested by specialists to allow for some affective reciprocal physical contact, if nonetheless limited, as touch can still be beneficial if proper steps are taken to address the particular interests, restrictions, and needs of the person involved.[1][6][21][22]

Scholarship and cultural/circumstantial role

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American scholarship from the late-20th century forward promoted the need for increased physical touch among loved ones and in society at large. It also supports the notion that humans have historically understood the connection between physical touch and healing.[10][13] A 1995 study published in the Journal of Psychosomatic Research suggested that touch and the development of a healthy relationship with touch plays a critical role in the development of proper self image, particularly one's body image.[24] Its focus was the perceived sense of touch deprivation as felt between women with bulimia nervosa versus a control group, which found that the former were more likely to have a worse self-image and to consider themselves to have experienced tactile deprivation in childhood and be experiencing such deprivation at the time of the study.[24]

Physical touch and age

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Early childhood development

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The overwhelming majority of scholarship states that physical touch/closeness, holding, and nurturing play a critical role in the development of secure attachment styles, early communication skills, and social behavior in infants.[6][7][10][25] In general, infants will naturally seek physical connection with their caregiver.[7] Such attention being withheld can have a pronounced negative impact on childrens' development, and can lead to the development of insecure attachment styles and volatile tendencies, as well as broader insecurities which prevent maturation, full motor skill development, and emotional involvement with others in adulthood.[7][9][14]

In children with autism, self-soothing techniques such as brushing, swinging (of the arms and legs), and jumping were found to have a positive effect on emotional regulation and to reduce tactile sensitivity, without note for physical touch received in other settings; this may indicate a potential alternative for parents in the absence of comfortable or practical options for their child for physical contact with others.[26]

Aging

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Despite its critical role in their well-functioning, most people receive less physical touch as they age.[13] As a person gets older, their tactile sensitivity decreases, leading to a lower sensory response from most physical input.[27] However, the positive response generated by 'pleasant' touch in old age is even more pronounced.[27] Though there is no proof of a social-emotional benefit, massage therapy has been shown to enhance relaxation and improve mood in elderly recipients.[9]

Gender split

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Though research initially claimed that women receive greater enjoyment than men from physical touch, later scholarship has challenged that notion due to the wide variability in the experience, reception, and initiation of contact among members of both sex.[14] Research published in Physiology & Behavior concluded through two separate studies that women were arguably more likely to use physical touch as a coping mechanism than men, though researchers noted that conclusions in the field thus far were imperfect.[14] They went on to criticize a general field methodology contingent for NIH funding which prioritized small sample sizes and allowed for random variability in statistical measurements as well as inconsistency in methods of analysis.[14]

National and regional differences

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History and counter-arguments

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See also: Solitary confinement, Leprosy, Haptic communication, and COVID-19 lockdowns

Solitary confinement

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Prisoners often report craving human touch and contact during their time in solitary confinement, which can serve as one of many contributing factors to the near-universally observed negative effects physical and social isolation have on them.[28][29] People in confinement have reported physical symptoms consistent with hypertension, such as "chronic headaches, trembling, sweaty palms, extreme dizziness and heart palpitation," as well as trouble eating, irregular digestion, and oversensitivity to unexpected normal stimuli.[29] Isolation, especially for long periods or if conducted/executed repeatedly, can lead the individual into psychosis or thoughts/acts of self harm or suicide.[13][29] Other psychological effects include irritability, hostility, lack of impulse control, anxiogenic and emotional volatility, mood swings, hopelessness, and depression.[29]

Covid-19 pandemic

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The COVID-19 pandemic greatly restricted the ability of much of the world's population to engage in regular physical contact with others. Most sources suggest this had a pronounced effect on most people's mental and emotional well-being amid the lockdown period, but long term impacts are yet unknown.[2]

Life without a sense of touch – Kim Stenger

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At present, Kim Stenger is the world's only living person without a sense of touch, living with a condition known as Complete sensory neuropathy.[30] Though paralyzed from the waist down, she maintains all of her other senses and currently serves as a criminal law researcher for the Cuyahoga County Prosecutor in Cleveland, Ohio.[30] She shows no signs of serious mental or emotional trauma as a result of her condition, which researchers from the University of Chicago believe is attributed to the full range of other senses she had access to to observe and comprehend her parents' love and affection in her early childhood.[30][31] The researchers claim this represents proof that a sense of touch is not a contingent factor of normal social-emotional development.[31]

See also

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See also: Haptic communication, Haptic perception, and Hug

References

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  1. ^ a b c Ryan, Charlotte (2021-08-09). ""Without touch we deteriorate quickly": What is touch starvation?". Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTE). Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  2. ^ a b Hasan, Maham (2020-10-06). "What All That Touch Deprivation Is Doing to Us". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  3. ^ a b Silvestri, Valentina; Giraud, Michelle; Macchi Cassia, Viola; Nava, Elena (June 2024). "Touch me or touch me not: Emotion regulation by affective touch in human adults". Emotion (American Psychological Association). 24 (4): 913–922. doi:10.1037/emo0001320. ISSN 1931-1516. PMID 37982793 – via PubMed NIH.
  4. ^ a b c d e Tomova, Livia; Wang, Kimberly L.; Thompson, Todd; Matthews, Gillian A.; Takahashi, Atsushi; Tye, Kay M.; Saxe, Rebecca (December 2020). "Acute social isolation evokes midbrain craving responses similar to hunger". Nature Neuroscience. 23 (12): 1597–1605. doi:10.1038/s41593-020-00742-z. ISSN 1546-1726. PMC 8580014. PMID 33230328 – via PubMed Central - National Library of Medicine (NIH).
  5. ^ a b c d Park, William (2020-07-07). "Why human touch is so hard to replace". BBC. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  6. ^ a b c springbrook (2017-03-21). "Physical Touch for Kids with Autism: A Basic Human Need - Springbrook Behavioral Health". springbrookbehavioral.com. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  7. ^ a b c d Bigelow, Ann E.; Williams, Lela (Nov 2020). "To have and to hold: Effects of physical contact on infants and their caregivers". Infant Behavior & Development. 61: 101494. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101494. ISSN 1934-8800. PMC 7502223. PMID 32966905.
  8. ^ a b Capiotto, Francesca; Romano Cappi, Giulia; Mirlisenna, Ilaria; Mazza, Alessandro; Cicinelli, Giovanni; Lauritano, Chiara; Keller, Roberto; Dal Monte, Olga (2024). "Autonomic and hedonic response to affective touch in autism spectrum disorder". Autism Research. 17 (5): 923–933. doi:10.1002/aur.3143. ISSN 1939-3806.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Huber, Carmen (1994). Vernon, Ann (ed.). "The value of therapeutic massage and touch in promoting physical and mental health" (PDF). UNI Scholarworks (University of Northern Iowa). Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  10. ^ a b c Zur, Ofer; Nordmarken, Nola (2018-12-11). "To Touch Or Not To Touch: Exploring Prohibition On Touch In Psychotherapy And Counseling and the Ethical Considerations of Touch, by Ofer Zur, Ph.D." Dr. Ofer Zur. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  11. ^ a b Ornstein, Sheldon Ed.D RN (2021-11-07). "Touch deprivation and aging". American College of Health Care Administrators. Archived from the original on 2025-03-16. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  12. ^ a b Montagu, Ashley (1978). Touching: the human significance of the skin (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
  13. ^ a b c d e Berendsen, Patricia (2017), Rovers, Martin; Malette, Judith; Guirguis-Younger, Manal (eds.), "The Intervention of Touch in Psychotherapy and Trauma Treatment", Touch in the Helping Professions, Research, Practice and Ethics, University of Ottawa Press, pp. 85–106, retrieved 2025-05-18
  14. ^ a b c d e Schirmer, Annett; Cham, Clare; Zhao, Zihao; Lai, Oscar; Lo, Clive; Croy, Ilona (2022-06-01). "Understanding sex differences in affective touch: Sensory pleasantness, social comfort, and precursive experiences". Physiology & Behavior. 250: 113797. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113797. ISSN 0031-9384.
  15. ^ a b Colton, Helen (1983). Touch therapy. New York: Kensington Publishing.
  16. ^ Jourard, Sidney M. (1966). "An Exploratory Study of Body-Accessibility". British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 5 (3): 221–231. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1966.tb00978.x. ISSN 2044-8260.
  17. ^ a b Holland, Taylor (2018-04-18). "Dignity Health | Facts About Touch | Dignity Health". Dignity Health. Archived from the original on 2025-03-20. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  18. ^ a b Yang, Li; Hassett, Afton; Seng, Julia (April 2019). "Exploring the mutual regulation between oxytocin and cortisol as a marker of resilience". Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 33 (2): 164–173. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2018.11.008. ISSN 1532-8228. PMC 6442937. PMID 30927986.
  19. ^ Berger, Samantha, MS OTR/L (2022-04-18). "Tactile Defensiveness Explained + Tactile Sensory Activities | NAPA Center". NAPA. Retrieved 2025-05-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b "Haphephobia (Fear of Being Touched): Causes & Treatment". Cleveland Clinic. Archived from the original on 2025-03-18. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  21. ^ a b c Stevens, Laura; Bregulla, Madeleine; Scheele, Dirk (2024-04-01). "Out of touch? How trauma shapes the experience of social touch – Neural and endocrine pathways". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 159: 105595. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105595. ISSN 0149-7634.
  22. ^ a b Strauss, Timmy; Rottstädt, Fabian; Sailer, Uta; Schellong, Julia; Hamilton, J. Paul; Raue, Claudia; Weidner, Kerstin; Croy, Ilona (July 2019). "Touch aversion in patients with interpersonal traumatization". Depression and Anxiety. 36 (7): 635–646. doi:10.1002/da.22914. ISSN 1520-6394. PMID 31209965.
  23. ^ "Sensory Processing Issues Explained". Child Mind Institute. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  24. ^ a b Gupta, Madhulika A.; Gupta, Aditya K.; Schork, Nicholas J.; Watteel, Gena N. (1995-05-01). "Perceived touch deprivation and body image: some observations among eating disordered and non-clinical subjects". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 39 (4): 459–464. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(94)00146-V. ISSN 0022-3999.
  25. ^ Davis, Isaac; Rovers, Martin; Petrella, Cassandra (2017), Rovers, Martin; Malette, Judith; Guirguis-Younger, Manal (eds.), "Touch Deprivation and Counselling as Healing Touch", Touch in the Helping Professions, Research, Practice and Ethics, University of Ottawa Press, pp. 13–32, doi:10.2307/j.ctv5vdcvd.5, JSTOR j.ctv5vdcvd.5, retrieved 2025-03-19
  26. ^ Randall, E.; Wright, M.; Milosevic, S.; et., al (June 2022). "Sensory integration therapy for children with autism and sensory processing difficulties: the SenITA RCT". Health Technology Assessment. No. 26.29. National Institute of Health. doi:10.3310/TQGE0020.
  27. ^ a b McIntyre, Sarah; Nagi, Saad S.; McGlone, Francis; Olausson, Håkan (2021-06-01). "The Effects of Ageing on Tactile Function in Humans". Neuroscience. The Neurobiology of Social and Affective Touch. 464: 53–58. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.02.015. ISSN 0306-4522.
  28. ^ Ryan, Charlotte (2021-08-09). ""Without touch we deteriorate quickly": What is touch starvation?". Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTE). Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  29. ^ a b c d Corcoran, Mary. "Effects of Solitary Confinement on the Well Being of Prison Inmates". NYU WordPress. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  30. ^ a b c Mignot, Suzanne Le (2023-02-09). "Chicago neuroscientist studies woman with no sense of touch - CBS Chicago". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2025-05-18.
  31. ^ a b Mason, Peggy; Reder, Anthony; Lacy, Maureen; Pinto, Jayant (2024-08-07). "Congenital absence of touch does not preclude normal cognitive and socioemotional development". Research Square: rs.3.rs–4791322. doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4791322/v1. ISSN 2693-5015. PMC 11326350. PMID 39149458.
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