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Tell es-Sakan

Coordinates: 31°28′33″N 34°24′17″E / 31.47583°N 34.40472°E / 31.47583; 34.40472
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Tell es-Sakan
تل السكن
A view downhill of a landscape consisting of yellow lithified sand dunes. There is a man in a light coloured shirt and a cap descending the slope, making his way been two projecting parts of the dune, and moving away from the camera.
Tell es-Sakan in September 2017
Tell es-Sakan is located in Gaza Strip
Tell es-Sakan
Shown within Gaza Strip
Tell es-Sakan is located in State of Palestine
Tell es-Sakan
Tell es-Sakan (State of Palestine)
LocationPalestine
RegionGaza Strip
Coordinates31°28′33″N 34°24′17″E / 31.47583°N 34.40472°E / 31.47583; 34.40472
TypeSettlement
Area8–9 ha (20–22 acres)
History
MaterialMud brick
Foundedc. 3300 BCE
Abandonedc. 2250 BCE
PeriodsBronze Age
Associated withEgyptians, Canaanites
Site notes
Excavation dates1999–2000
Archaeologists
ConditionDamaged

Tell es-Sakan (Arabic: تل السكن, lit. 'Hill of Ash') is a tell (archaeological mound) about 5 kilometres (3 mi) south of Gaza City in the Gaza Strip. It was the site of two separate Early Bronze Age urban settlements: the first was a fortified administrative centre of the Egyptian colonies in southwestern Palestine, inhabited from about 3300 BCE to 3000 BCE, and after a period of abandonment a Canaanite fortified city was established around 2600 BCE and inhabited until about 2250 BCE.

Tell es-Sakan was positioned along what was probably a palaeochannel of the Wadi Ghazzeh. Its geographical location endowed it with a position of importance and it functioned as a trading post. It may have been established as a successor to Taur Ikhbeineh, a nearby settlement that was inhabited in the 34th century BCE. After Tell es-Sakan was abandoned for a second time, the settlement of Tell el-Ajjul was established 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the south, and was likely intended as a replacement. Tell es-Sakan is the oldest known Egyptian fortified site, and the only known Egyptian fortification beyond the Nile Valley.

The tell covered around 8–9 hectares (20–22 acres), of which 1,400 square metres (15,000 sq ft) has undergone archaeological excavation though a larger area has been destroyed as a result of construction and conflict. The site was discovered in 1998 during a building project and investigated as part of a joint Palestinian–French archaeological project. Though there were plans for further work, fieldwork halted after the 2000 season due to the start of the Second Intifada. Finds from Tell es-Sakan have been displayed to the public at exhibitions in France and Switzerland. In 2017, Hamas began bulldozing part of the site but halted following opposition from various groups, including the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities and the Islamic University of Gaza. The site was further damaged as a result of the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip in 2023–25.

Topography

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In the Bronze Age Tell es-Sakan was near the Mediterranean coast and apparently possessed a harbour on a now silted-up estuary of the Wadi Ghazzeh. Today it stands to the north of the stream's current course, which has changed over time.[1][2] When Tell es-Sakan was rediscovered, the artificial mound rose more than 10 metres (33 ft) above the coastal plain and was completely covered by a lithified sand dune;[3] the fossilised dune consisting of kurkar obscures the extent of the settlement which covers an estimated 8–9 hectares (20–22 acres).[4]

History

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The accidental exposure brought to light the only settlement of the Early Bronze Age discovered to date in the Gaza Strip, with well-preserved remains of mud-brick constructions and a wealth of other findings dating exclusively to that period. Tell es-Sakan was located near a ford on the coastal road leading to Egypt, the Via Maris, an ideal place for archaeologists to study the interaction between Egypt and Palestine during the time the tell was occupied: between 3300 and 2250 BCE.[3][5][6] It appears to be the predecessor to the Tell el-Ajjul settlement, a major city of the second millennium BCE located just 500 metres (1,600 ft) metres further south.[7] Remains of sheep, goat and cattle were discovered, as well as fish bones and shells. Wheat, barley, vegetables, olives, and grapes were cultivated.[8]

Three areas were methodically investigated, allowing the archaeologists to develop a broad chronology of the site. The excavated area referred to as 'sounding A' in the published literature covered an area of 525 square metres (5,650 sq ft) and was excavated to a depth of 9 metres (30 ft). This area produced evidence for the earliest phase of activity at Tell es-Sakan: the Egyptian phase of the settlement.[9][5] Sounding B covered an area of 425 square metres (4,570 sq ft),[10] and sounding C an area of 400 square metres (4,300 sq ft).[11] Excavations revealed that the site was occupied during two distinct major phases: the lower levels of sounding A belong to a city of the Egyptian Protodynastic Period, which corresponds to the Early Bronze Age IB period in the history of the Southern Levant (the end of the 4th millennium BCE); and the middle and upper levels of soundings B and C belong to a Canaanite settlement dating to the third millennium.[3]

Egyptian city (3300–3000 BCE)

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'Sounding A' of the excavations contained remains of Tell es-Sakan's Egyptian phase.

The first settlement of Tell es-Sakan was established in about 3300 BCE. It was an Egyptian colony, and archaeologists discovered the remains of mud-brick buildings, defensive walls, and ceramic materials from this phase of habitation. The defensive walls marked Tell es-Sakan as the oldest known fortified Egyptian site and at the time the only Egyptian fortified settlement beyond the Nile Valley. The remains provided dating evidence for activity at Tell es-Sakan based on comparison to other Egyptian archaeological sites. Tell es-Sakan began as an unfortified settlement, and an enclosing wall was added later. The wall of the Egyptian city was initially 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) thick and then widened to 3.55 metres (11.6 ft). Tell es-Sakan's defences were then demolished and replaced with another wall, this time 3.8 metres (12 ft) thick and enhanced by a glacis.[12][13] In 2013, a fortification wall was excavated at Tel Erani (an Egyptian settlement) and thought to be of a similar age to the fortifications at Tell es-Sakan.[14]

The excavations found the remains of houses and domestic structures. The oldest remains on the site had been damaged by the mechanical diggers. Though no single structure was fully excavated, some of the buildings had hearths and brick-built silos – the latter is typical of ancient Egyptian architecture. One building also had a feature that may be a bread oven.[15] The finds associated with the first city were mostly (90%–95%) Egyptian in style, and at least three-quarters of the portable material culture was produced locally, emulating Egyptian styles of material culture.[12][13] Sherds of pottery bearing serekhs were also recovered from the Egyptian phase of the site.[16]

A limestone carving of a frog was found in 'sounding A' amongst material dated to the last third of the 4th millennium BCE.[17] It may be a votive figure dedicated to Heqet,[18] an Egyptian goddess with the head of a frog.

Archaeologists Pierre de Miroschedji and Moain Sadeq propose that there were three areas of Egyptian expansion into the southern Levant during the late 3rd millennium BCE, and Tell es-Sakan was one of the major settlements in the region. Tell es-Sakan and the much smaller settlement at En Besor were part of an area of permanent Egyptian settlement. Extending north along the coast were areas of Egyptian influence (including sites such as Tel Erani and Ascalon), with Egyptian and Canaanite populations living in the same areas, sometimes with seasonal movement. Beyond this area, extending further north and east inland, sites such as Tell Abu al-Kharaz and Tel Megiddo had trading contacts with Egypt.[19] The only other Egyptian settlement in this area that was older than es-Sakan was Taur Ikhbeineh, also on the Wadi Ghazzeh.[20] Habitation at Taur Ikhbeineh was radiocarbon dated to the 34th century BCE,[21] and de Miroschedji and Sadeq suggest that Tell es-Sakan may have effectively been a successor settlement to Taur Ikhbeineh.[7] The exceptional use of fortifications may indicate that Tell es-Sakan was especially important in the region, and may have acted as the administrative centre of the colonial domain established by the Egyptians in southwestern Palestine. It functioned as a trading post and the quantity of wine jars discovered at the site led the excavators to suggest that wine from the region was being exported to Egypt.[22][3] Archaeobotanical evidence consisting of plant remains found at Tell es-Sakan demonstrates that the inhabitants consumed cereals, legumes, and figs.[22]

De Miroschedji suggests that Tell es-Sakan may correspond to the settlement of Wenet, an Egyptian fortified settlement recorded in during the Egyptian First Dynasty period.[23] Habitation at Egyptian Tell es-Sakan lasted until about 3000 BCE (the very end of Early Bronze Age I and the beginning of Early Bronze Age II).[24][note 1] This conclusion is based on a dearth of finds at Tell es-Sakan dating to this period, either discovered through excavations or through recovery during the demolition of parts of the site.[25] The abandonment may have coincided with the beginning of the First Dynasty of Egypt, perhaps under the reign of one of the successors of Pharaoh Narmer, such as Hor-Aha or Den.[26]

Canaanite city (2600–2250 BCE)

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A decorated bone handle discovered at Tell es-Sakan on display at the Institut du Monde Arabe in 2025. The handle found found during the excavations and associated with the Canaanite city.[27]

The Egyptian colonial domain in the region eventually disappeared and the site was abandoned for several centuries. There were consequently very few active settlements in the southern coastal region during the Early Bronze Age II. In the Early Bronze Age III, around 2600 BCE, the site was reoccupied when the local population created a new, fortified city,[3] acting as a capital.[28] At this point the Wadi Ghazzeh formed a natural border between Canaan and Egypt.[29] The earliest phases from the reoccupation of the site were found in sounding C; pottery vessels recovered from this area were Canaan in style, and similar to pottery found at Tel Yarmuth dating from the Early Bronze Age IIIA.[30][29] Five levels of occupation have been found lasting about three centuries. There are indications that the reoccupation of the site took place at the beginning of the Egyptian Fourth Dynasty.[31]

A strong mud brick rampart consisting of a wall strengthened by a glacis surrounded an urban settlement described by de Miroscheji and Sadeq who excavated the site as having "both a strong local particularism and close ties with the sites of inner Canaan".[3] The walls at that time were 7.8 metres (26 ft) thick and built of sun-dried mud bricks[29] – larger than the walls of the Egyptian settlement. Based on the size of the defences, Tell es-Sakan was a major Canaanite settlement.[11] As well as the fortification the archaeologists found a residential area with buildings surviving in parts to a height of nearly 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). The walls and floors were limewashed. Despite multiple buildings being discovered, only one doorway was found, which suggests that these structures were entered from above ground-floor level. The excavators noted that "The overlapping of dwellings ... implies a high degree of urbanization".[32] At the edge of the excavated area was the corner of a building; though this was not excavated to determine its use, the thickness of the walls may indicate that it was a public building rather than a house.[33]

Animal bones found at Tell es-Sakan show that the consumption of pigs stopped during the Canaanite settlement, in contrast to the Egyptian settlement from which porcine bones made up 24% of the bones recovered from the site.[22][27] Due to Tell es-Sakan's position near a ford across the Wadi Ghazzeh, the city may have been attacked by Uni who was governor of Upper Egypt and during the reign of Pepi I Meryre in the late 23rd century and early 22nd century BCE embarked on military campaigns.[34][35] The settlement was finally abandoned around 2250 BCE.[5]

The latter half of the third millennium BCE (2500–2000 BCE) was characterised by the widespread abandonment of large settlements in the Levant. There was a transition to smaller settlements, and there may have been a resurgence in nomadic living.[36] Pierre de Miroschedji hypothesised that a change in the course of the Wadi Ghazzeh led to the abandonment of Tell es-Sakan in favour of Tell el-Ajjul,[37] established about 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the source.[7] As well as Tell el-Ajjul another nearby site, al-Moghraqa, was occupied during the Middle and Late Bronze Age.[38][39]

Discovery and investigation

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Plan of excavations and approximate extent of Tell es-Sakan[40][note 2]

In 1994 the newly formed Palestinian Authority established the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage (which later became part of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities) to manage cultural heritage in Palestine. This gave Palestinians a greater role in the investigation and interpretation of their heritage. On its inception the department had limited resources and few experienced staff, but with international collaboration in the space of fifteen years it had overseen 500 investigations in Palestine.[41] An increasing number of building projects led to more discoveries of archaeological sites in Palestine which needed to be recorded; Tell es-Sakan is one such site.[42]

Surveys of the region over the course of several decades failed to detect the tell. It was discovered by chance in 1998 during the construction of a new housing complex on the south side of what was later understood to be a tell[43] – a mound created by layers upon layers of human occupation on a site over an extended period.[44] Tell es-Sakan was the first archaeological site discovered in Gaza to that dates from the end of the Early Bronze Age I and Early Bronze Age II to III periods (spanning the 4th and 3rd millennia B.C.) – a poorly represented span in the region's archaeological record.[45] The planned building's foundation trenches exposed archaeological deposits, but caused significant damage to the site in the process.[43] The discovery of large amounts of ash during investigations led to the site being named Tell es-Sakan,[46] meaning 'hill of ash'.[47]

Construction work was temporarily suspended to allow archaeological investigations.[3][48] Archaeologists Pierre de Miroschedji and Moain Sadeq led a three-week rescue excavation at Tell es-Sakan in September 1999. It was an international collaboration: Sadeq was director of the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage and de Miroschedji was a director at the French National Centre for Scientific Research.[49] Three boreholes were dug on the west side of the site; the extracted core samples demonstrated that the archaeological layers extended to a depth of 9 metres (30 ft) and established the chronology of the site.[50] The area was further investigated through trial excavations using the foundation trenches for the proposed buildings. French-Palestinian collaboration continued in 2000 with a large-scale excavation campaign involving three different areas on the west side of the site covering a total area of c. 1,400 m2.[51]

An exhibition titled "Mediterranean Gaza" was held at the Institut du Monde Arabe (IMA) in Paris in 2000. It contained 221 items from archaeological sites in Gaza, including a selection of finds from Tell es-Sakan. The Second Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation, began in September 2000. The exhibition at the IMA had not concluded and Leila Shahid, the Ambassador of Palestine to France, arranged for the safe storage of the artefacts in Paris.[52][53] In 2007 they were transferred to Geneva for an exhibition at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire titled "Gaza at the Crossroad of Civilizations".[54][55] The intifada led to the cessation of many archaeological projects in Palestine,[56] and the excavations at Tell es-Sakan were suspended for security reasons.[47] Investigations by the Gaza Research Project at the nearby Bronze Age site of al-Moghraqa, which had been discovered by Sadeq in 1996, were also abandoned.[38]

Later history and conservation

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External videos
YouTube logo
YouTube video
video icon A video showing the state of Tell es-Sakan in 2021, after the bulldozing of 2017, by Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism
Archaeologists visited Tell es-Sakan in September 2017, during a pause in the demolition of the site.

Comparison of photographs of the site indicates that the site underwent significant changes with focus in two periods: between 2003 and 2004 and between 2005 and 2014.[57] In the wake of the 2008–2009 Gaza War, the 2012 Israeli operation in the Gaza Strip, and the 2014 Gaza War, displaced people temporarily lived on the east of the archaeological site.[47] Economic and demographic pressures, along with new building developments in the area, have also presented challenges to preserving Tell es-Sakan. The construction of new buildings for the University of Palestine in 2009 and 2012 encroached on the west and north sides of the tell, leading to the destruction of approximately one-quarter of the archaeological site.[47][58]

In August 2017 Hamas authorities began levelling the site with bulldozers, intending to use the land to compensate some of its senior employees. This led to protests and disagreements between the Land Authority, which was in favour of the development, and the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities which opposed the work. Pressure from the ministry, the Islamic University of Gaza, and archaeologists such led to a two-week pause. The work concentrated on the south side of the tell, and by that stage an area of 1.2 hectares (3.0 acres) had been destroyed.[47]

A UNESCO representative, Junaid Sorosh-Wali, described the destruction as "disastrous for the archaeology and cultural heritage in Palestine".[47] The resumption of bulldozing led to further protests against the destruction of Palestinian cultural heritage, including a social media campaign by a youth group which attracted further media attention.[59] Palestinian archaeologist Fadel al-Athal was able to recover fragments of pottery. Demolition halted in October 2017.[60] Satellite imagery from 2018 showed evidence of bulldozing, and by 2021 there had been further clearance and a new road built running north-east to south-west.[61]

Six images of small finds. The finds are: a piece of stone tool approximately 6cm wide; fragments of corroded metal; a 4cm piece of ceramic in the partial shape of an animal; the base of a pot approximately 15cm in diameter protruding from a walls; a collection of sherds from a single pot, the visible part of which is approximately 40cm wide; a 3cm long seashell.
During the 2022 survey by the GAZAMAP project, surface finds were discovered including ceramics and metal items.

In 2022, the Gaza Maritime Archaeology Project (GAZAMAP) involving researchers based in Gaza and the UK conducted a field survey of Tell es-Sakan. GAZAMAP's objective was to evaluate the condition of various endangered maritime archaeological sites. The fieldwork was conducted by Ayman Hassouna of the Islamic University of Gaza who led a group of ten students. They identified surviving features that had been exposed on the site, and material culture including pottery, flints, and stone tools. A large number of shells confirmed that the site was near the coast during its Bronze Age use. The project also identified areas which were a priority for ongoing monitoring to safeguard the site.[62][63]

Hundreds of cultural heritage sites were destroyed or damaged during the 2023 Israeli invasion of Gaza,[64] including Tell es-Sakan. Analysis of satellite imagery by GAZAMAP found that residential buildings in the vicinity of Tell es-Sakan had been destroyed.[65] The archaeological site was damaged, and as of November 2023 the extent was uncertain.[66] From June to September 2024, an international team of researchers evaluated the impact of the war on heritage sites in Gaza using techniques including remote sensing and field observation. The survey found that Tell es-Sakan was severely affected by bomb and bulldozer damage. Bulldozers had demolished the east corner of the tell, possibly for a temporary military installation.[67]

Finds from Tell es-Sakan were again displayed at the Institut du Monde Arabe in 2025 as part of the exhibition: "Saved Treasures of Gaza: 5000 Years of History".[68]

Notes

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  1. ^ See historical periodisation at Bronze Age
  2. ^ The indication of north on the plan differs from the plan in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land.[3]

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Morhange et al. 2005, pp. 77–78.
  2. ^ Andreou et al. 2024, p. 18.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2008.
  4. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 77–78.
  5. ^ a b c de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, p. 157.
  6. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 100.
  7. ^ a b c de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, p. 155.
  8. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 96 (the part about archaeo-zoology by Naomi Sykes is in English)
  9. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 80.
  10. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 94.
  11. ^ a b de Miroschedji 2015, p. 1029.
  12. ^ a b de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 80–84.
  13. ^ a b de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, pp. 160–161.
  14. ^ de Miroschedji 2015, pp. 1007, 1014.
  15. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 84–85.
  16. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 87–88.
  17. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, pp. 157, 161.
  18. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 89.
  19. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, pp. 163–165.
  20. ^ Oren & Yekutieli 1992.
  21. ^ Oren & Yekutieli 1992, pp. 363, 381.
  22. ^ a b c de Miroschedji 2015, p. 1018.
  23. ^ de Miroschedji 2012, pp. 272, 277.
  24. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 80 (see chart)
  25. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, pp. 165–168.
  26. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 90.
  27. ^ a b de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 96.
  28. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 101.
  29. ^ a b c de Miroschedji 2012, p. 276.
  30. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, p. 168.
  31. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 93 (also see the chart on p. 80)
  32. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 91–92.
  33. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, p. 92.
  34. ^ de Miroschedji 2012, p. 266, 284.
  35. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 101–102.
  36. ^ Sharon 2013, p. 52.
  37. ^ Steel et al. 2004, p. 43.
  38. ^ a b Steel et al. 2004, p. 37.
  39. ^ Bergoffen 2023, pp. 45–52.
  40. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2005, p. 158.
  41. ^ Hamdan Taha 2010, pp. 17–21.
  42. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000b, p. 123.
  43. ^ a b de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000b, p. 126.
  44. ^ Matthews 2020, pp. 1053–1056.
  45. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000b, pp. 123–124.
  46. ^ Clarke & Steel 1999, p. 215.
  47. ^ a b c d e f Akram 2017.
  48. ^ Matthews & Cornelia 2003, pp. 24–25, 34–37.
  49. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000b, p. 127.
  50. ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000a, p. 30.
  51. ^ de Miroschedji et al. 2001, pp. 78–79.
  52. ^ de Miroschedji 2018.
  53. ^ Armaly 2008, pp. 53–54.
  54. ^ Armaly 2008, p. 43.
  55. ^ Hamdan Taha 2010, pp. 22.
  56. ^ El Khoudary 2019, pp. 91–92.
  57. ^ Andreou et al. 2024, p. 21.
  58. ^ Berretta & Barzak 2013.
  59. ^ al-Amoudi 2017.
  60. ^ Smith 2017.
  61. ^ Andreou et al. 2024, pp. 21, 23.
  62. ^ Andreou, Elkhoudary & Hassouna 2024, pp. 4–8.
  63. ^ Andreou & ElKhoudary 2022.
  64. ^ Ahmed 2024: "A recent report by the Palestinian culture ministry into Israeli damage to Palestinian heritage said Israel’s bombardment of Gaza had destroyed 207 buildings of cultural or historical significance, including 144 in the old city and 25 religious sites."
  65. ^ Andreou 2023, pp. 8, 10–11.
  66. ^ Geranpayeh 2023.
  67. ^ Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation 2025, pp. 29–32, 34, 389.
  68. ^ Institut du Monde Arabe 2025.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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[edit]
Scholia has a profile for Tell es-Sakan (Q7697545).
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