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Plymouth Brethren Christian Church

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Plymouth Brethren Christian Church
ClassificationProtestant
OrientationPlymouth Brethren
PolityConnectional
LeaderBruce Hales
RegionAustralia, New Zealand, Europe, the Americas and UK[1]
FounderJohn Nelson Darby[2][3][4][5]
Origin1828 [note 1]
Plymouth
Separated fromPlymouth Brethren[note 2][3]
Separationsnumerous schisms
MembersOver 50,000[1]

The Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC) is an evangelical Christian movement and the most well-known branch of the Exclusive Brethren, a group that emerged from the Plymouth Brethren in the 19th century.[6]

The PBCC has a global presence, with about 50,000 members based across Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the Americas.[1][4] Members follow a separatist interpretation of the Bible, aiming to live apart from what they see as the moral corruption of the wider world.[4][3]

The group traces its roots to the Exclusive Brethren movement established by John Nelson Darby in the 1840s.[4][3][7][8] The PBCC as it exists today took clearer shape in the mid-20th century, particularly under the leadership of James Taylor Sr. and his son James Taylor Jr.[3] It is now led by Bruce Hales, an Australian businessman based in Sydney. The group holds daily worship meetings, adheres to strict moral codes, and restricts social interaction with those outside the fellowship.[4][3]

Overview and beliefs

[edit]
A PBCC meeting hall in Albourne, UK

The Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC) teaches that unity among believers is achieved through separation from what they regard as evil. This belief underpins many of their lifestyle restrictions and community practices. Members do not watch television, listen to the radio, or use the open internet for personal use, although filtered internet access is permitted for education and business purposes.[9][10][11]

Brethren typically avoid social and professional affiliations outside the fellowship. This includes abstaining from clubs, professional memberships, and holding shares or directorships in outside companies. Eating out at restaurants and staying in hotels is also generally avoided. Social interaction is reserved for those within the fellowship. Specifically, those who participate in the Lord’s Supper (their name for the Eucharist). Even close relatives outside the church are excluded from shared meals, entertainment, and other social gatherings.[12]

Brethren meetings are held daily, with some conducted online.[13] Sundays are particularly active, typically including three meetings: the Lord's Supper (Holy Communion), a reading or discussion of scripture, and one or more preaching sessions.[13] Of the ten weekly services, nine are described as 'open,' meaning that well-disposed members of the public may attend. However, two meetings (the Lord’s Supper and the monthly Care Meeting) are restricted to members in good standing.[14]

In meetings, participation by members is encouraged, however women do not lead worship, preach, or pray audibly in meetings. In services, they sit separately from men. This practice reflects the group’s interpretation of 1 Corinthians 14:34.[15][13] They wear head coverings during worship, although outside of meetings a headband or hair clip is sometimes used as a token covering.[13] Dress expectations for women have become more relaxed in recent years and make-up is now commonly worn. While most Brethren businesses are led by men, some women are shareholders, directors in family firms, or involved in day-to-day operations.[13]

Gospel preaching is often conducted in public spaces, such as on street corners. While the Brethren do not actively seek converts, they view preaching as a way to share their understanding of the Christian gospel.[13]

A sign outside a Plymouth Brethren building

The Brethren emphasise traditional family structures. Men are expected to be the financial providers, while women typically manage the household. Children remain in the family home until marriage and are encouraged to marry within the fellowship. Courtship is chaperoned, and physical intimacy before marriage is strongly discouraged.[13][16]Elderly and unwell members are usually cared for by other Brethren families, though private nursing homes are fully used when necessary. A 2006 study of Australian Brethren suggested a divorce or separation rate of around 0.8%, compared to 10.8% in the general population at the time.[17] Few people outside the Brethren join the fellowship, and relatively few born into it choose to leave.[17]

History

[edit]
See also: History of the Exclusive Brethren

The early Brethren were concerned about the close ties between the Church of England and the government. They also felt that church life had become too formal, too focused on structure, and too divided into denominations.[6]

From the start, the Plymouth Brethren rejected the idea of ordained ministers or priests, believing that all members were saints with equal standing. In practice, however, leadership did emerge. John Nelson Darby became a dominant figure in the Exclusive branch during his lifetime, and after F.E. Raven’s death in 1905, James Taylor of New York gradually became his recognised successor. Taylor’s influence grew, and by 1910 he was the undisputed leader of the Raven faction. Under his leadership, authority shifted to New York, and a more formal hierarchy began to develop. By 1920, when another split occurred involving 40 assemblies in Australia, the group was often referred to as the 'Taylor' or 'Raven–Taylor' Brethren.[18]

In 1929, controversy arose when Taylor was reported to have challenged the doctrine of the eternal Sonship of Christ. He emphasised that the term "Son" did not appear in Scripture until the incarnation, citing John 1, where Christ is introduced as the "Word" rather than the "Son". This view led to further division, and in 1932 a revised edition of the Little Flock hymnbook was issued, reflecting the theological shift.[19][20][21]

Following Taylor's death in 1953, leadership passed to his son, James Taylor Jr (1899–1970).[3] During Taylor Jr’s tenure, the movement adopted increasingly rigid standards. These included detailed prescriptions on dress, business conduct, facial hair, and education. Members were instructed not to eat with those outside the group, including family, and were discouraged or forbidden from joining professional associations. These developments led to further departures, with many individuals and assemblies leaving during the ministries of both Taylor Sr and Jr.[14]

Developments since 1970

[edit]

After Taylor Jr's death, leadership passed to James H. Symington, a farmer from Neche, North Dakota.[22]Symington led the movement until his death in 1987,[22] after which leadership transitioned to John Hales, an Australian accountant.[23] Hales established a school for Brethren families in the Sydney suburb of Meadowbank.[23] When he died in 2002, his son, Bruce Hales, a Sydney-based accountant, assumed leadership of the group.[3][24]

In 2004, Hales reversed a long-standing Brethren tradition on political involvement and encouraged the church to support conservative political causes. Internal rules were relaxed, including the dress code and rules on access to technology.[14]

In 2012, the Preston Down Trust, representing a Plymouth Brethren meeting hall in Devon, was denied charitable status by the Charity Commission, which stated it was not satisfied that the Trust’s activities provided a public benefit as required under charity law. The decision drew national attention and controversy, with debates over religious freedom, public access, and transparency. Following an appeal and a period of negotiation, the Commission announced in January 2014 that it would approve the Trust’s application, after legally binding undertakings were made to amend the trust deed and clarify its practices in support of public benefit.[25]

Business

[edit]

Typically Brethren either own their own business or work for a business run by another Brethren member.[13] Their business interests span manufacturing, distribution, and sales. These include sectors such as clothing, architecture, mobility and rehabilitation aids, food supply, and the import and resale of industrial hardware like welding tools and consumables.[26] Globally, the PBCC claims their businesses employ over 56,000 non-member staff[27] and generate a combined turnover of A$22 billion.[1] The PBCC does not permit trade unions. In some cases, it has opposed regulations that would allow union representatives to visit member-run workplaces.[28]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Sante Group and Westlab Pty Ltd, companies reportedly associated with members of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, were awarded government contracts in Australia and the UK to supply COVID-19 testing materials. These contracts reportedly totalled over £1 billion.[29]

Technology

[edit]

A significant development in the recent history of the PBCC has been its acceptance of modern technology. Historically, the group strongly discouraged devices such as radios, televisions, and personal computers.  Access to the internet, mobile phones, and similar tools were restricted within the community.  Beginning in the early 2000s, the group began to reconsider its position.[30]

This shift has been studied in detail by Dr. Steve Knowles, a senior lecturer in Religious and Popular Culture at the University of Chester,[31] who noted that prior to the 21st century, ICT was broadly denounced by PBCC leaders.[30] Today however, members use most modern technology such as laptops, smartphones, video conferencing, the internet and even some social media platforms.[30][13]

The PBCC provides a members-only smartphone app containing contact details and photographs of Brethren families worldwide, including the names of household members.[13]

Streamline3 internet filtering software

[edit]
Devices sold by UBT come pre-installed with anti-virus and filtering software called Streamline3.
Devices sold by UBT come pre-installed with anti-virus and filtering software called Streamline3.

The PBCC recommends that members use internet filtering software on members devices, particularly when devices are accessed by children.[13] Devices sold by UBT come pre-installed with anti-virus and filtering software called Streamline3.[13][32] UBT also offers a service adding streamline3 to devices members have purchased elsewhere.[33]

Former members say that the PBCC blocks sites it does not wish members to see, including support resources for those seeking to leave. However the PBCC stated "the Church has no control over the devices their members use, or the websites that they access".[34][35] An article in The Daily Telegraph notes that the use of Streamline3 may be left to "parents' discretion".[13] According to the Streamline3 website, device administrators can control website access and block harmful content such as pornography to help protect users.[36]

Business and charity activities

[edit]

Several organisations are closely associated with the PBCC. The Rapid Relief Team, Universal Business Team (UBT), and OneSchool Global (OSG) were founded by Brethren members and are publicly listed on the Church’s website, though they are not owned by the Church itself[37]

Rapid Relief Team

[edit]
See also: Rapid Relief Team

The Rapid Relief Team (RRT) is a global charity run by volunteers from the PBCC.[38] It supports emergency services and humanitarian causes, including homelessness, mental health, disability, and youth disadvantage.[39][40][41] RRT operates in multiple countries and has received both praise and scrutiny. In Canada, its partnership with police departments raised questions about transparency and religious affiliation.[42]

In 2022, the group passed the milestone of one million meals delivered to people affected by the war in Ukraine.[43]

Universal Business Team (UBT)

[edit]

Universal Business Team (UBT) is a global business consultancy and group purchasing network affiliated with members of the PBCC. It employs over 700 staff, including both Brethren and non-Brethren professionals.[44] The organisation provides services such as business advice, training, accounting, and procurement.[45]

UBT operates as a business support structure for PBCC-affiliated companies. By acting as a buying group, it allows participating businesses to negotiate collective purchasing deals.[46]

UBT has also been involved in legal action. In New Zealand it initiated legal proceedings against former member Peter Harrison, alleging he had used a UBT-published directory containing PBCC member contact details without authorisation.[47]

OneSchool Global (OSG)

[edit]

Members of the Church run a global network of schools called OneSchool Global which educates over 8,000 children between the ages of 8 and 18.[48][11] There are over 120 campuses including 38 in Australia,[49] 43 in the UK,[50]and 36 in North America.[51] The school reports having "more than 2,000 staff and volunteers operating across 20 countries".[48]

Students are discouraged from physically attending university[3] but most undertake tertiary studies through distance learning, completing diplomas or degrees, typically focusing on accountancy, marketing or business studies rather than the arts.[13] In the United Kingdom about 10% study for a degree.[13]

In 2005 David Bell, the Chief Inspector of Schools in England, praised the Brethren schools for their standard of teaching and said in his report that "the quality of teaching, most of which is done by experienced practitioners, is generally good."[50] The schools are largely staffed by non-brethren teachers.[3] Their schools do use computers and other modern technology and their use of Zoom and Self Directed Learning enabled them to cope with the COVID-19 virus.[13][11] They now embrace a wide range of technology with the school stating that all students from Years 3 -13 have their own dedicated laptop.[52]

Criticism

[edit]

The PBCC has faced scrutiny in several areas, including social conduct, political engagement, legal challenges, and public perception.

Media perception

[edit]

The Plymouth Brethren Christian Church has been the subject of controversy and media scrutiny at various times since the 1960s. In 2007, the group appointed an official media spokesperson and began engaging more actively with the press.

Several documentaries have focused on the Exclusive Brethren, including Anno Domini – Doctrine that Divides,[note 3] Inside New Zealand: Leaving the Exclusive Brethren which followed five individuals who had left the group,[note 4] and Veracity: Breaking Brethren[note 5]

Political activities

[edit]

While the PBCC has historically identified as a separatist and apolitical religious movement, its members have supported conservative political causes aligned with the church's values, particularly on social and economic issues.

This involvement has included seeking exemptions from trade union laws, compulsory voting, and legislation on moral issues such as abortion and homosexuality. In accordance with dispensational teachings, the Brethren traditionally saw no point in political engagement due to their belief in an imminent apocalyptic future. However, in recent decades, members have coordinated support for political parties and campaigns.[53]

In 2007 the exclusive brethren website stated it encouraged members to work with elected officials "to express a moral viewpoint of legislation in relation to the rights of God".[54] In recent times this has included political campaigning as detailed below.

In an interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, Daniel Hales, brother of PBCC leader Bruce Hales, explained this position: "I see it as a sin and you don't. So I'm very happy for you to vote... But to me, it's my conscience that doesn't allow me to vote."[55][56]

Australia

[edit]

In the mid-2000's, members of the PBCC were linked to political campaigning, including substantial donations supporting the re-election of the Prime Minister John Howard in the 2004 Australian federal election.[55][57] The funding, channelled through a member-owned company, drew scrutiny from the Australian Electoral Commission and became the subject of a criminal investigation.[58][59][60]

Members also met with senior politicians including Attorney-General Philip Ruddock[61] and Opposition Leader Kevin Rudd. Rudd initially criticised the group but later endorsed a fundraising publication involving Brethren schools.[60][62][63][64][65] Prime Minister John Howard confirmed that he met with the Brethren, stating he has no problem with the group and that they are "entitled to put their views to the Government".[66]

In 2007, the ABC's Four Corners programme investigated the PBCC’s political involvement, suggesting an extensive but largely hidden history of campaigning, and alleged that church members had provided support to major political figures.[67][68]

Brethren members were also associated with anti-Green Party efforts in Tasmania, prompting complaints to the Anti-Discrimination Tribunal.[69][70][better source needed]

Further allegations included attempts to influence local councils and oppose adult stores, sparking calls for greater transparency about political ties.[71][72][73]

Canada

[edit]

In 2005, individuals linked to the PBCC were reported to have anonymously campaigned against a same-sex marriage bill before the Canadian Senate. Operating under the name Concerned Canadian Parents, they distributed direct-mail materials and placed a full-page ad in The Hill Times, a publication directed at Parliament Hill.[74][75]

PBCC members have also been linked to funding third-party political groups, including the Canada Growth Council, which ran ads critical of Justin Trudeau and Liberal Party candidates during the 2019 Canadian federal election.[75]

New Zealand

[edit]

In the early 2000s, members of the PBCC were active in New Zealand politics, including lobbying MPs and distributing political pamphlets. During the 2005 New Zealand general election, they reportedly spent around NZ$1.2 million on anonymous mailers opposing the Labour and Green parties. Though the pamphlets did not explicitly endorse the National Party, their messaging suggested alignment.[76][77]

The campaign drew public and political criticism, with then–Prime Minister Helen Clark accusing the group of spreading misinformation and hiring private investigators to monitor Labour MPs.[78][79][80][81] Following the controversy, some politicians distanced themselves from the PBCC, and the episode contributed to calls for electoral finance reform.[82][83][84]

Sweden

[edit]

In 2006, the Swedish tabloid Aftonbladet reported that members of the Brethren funded an advertising campaign in support of the centre-right Alliance for Sweden. The advertisements were distributed by an agency called Nordas Sverige, reportedly set up by Swedish business owners linked to the church. The newspaper traced the operation to a UK-based company, Nordas Ltd, allegedly run by individuals also associated with the Brethren.[85]

United States

[edit]

In 2004, a group of individuals associated with the Exclusive Brethren formed the Thanksgiving 2004 Committee in Florida, which raised $530,000 for newspaper advertisements supporting the re-election campaigns of President George W. Bush and Senator Mel Martinez. According to the St. Petersburg Times, $377,262 of the funds came from a Brethren member based in London, UK.[86] None of the funds were raised in Florida, according to filings with the Federal Election Commission.

Internal discipline

[edit]

Some former members say that life inside the Brethren is defined by the "three Fs": family, finances and fear, with the most important being family.[87]

Critics of the PBCC have accused it of controlling all aspects of its members' lives.[88] Some former members report difficulty adjusting to life outside the Church after leaving or being excommunicated.[89]

According to the PBCC, its disciplinary practices include 'shutting up' (temporary internal separation) and 'withdrawing from' (excommunication). The Church states that such measures are rare and only applied after sustained pastoral engagement, typically in response to conduct viewed as incompatible with biblical principles. Critics, however, argue that disciplinary actions may also be used to suppress dissent or challenge to leadership. Former members have described instances where individuals were withdrawn from for disagreeing with the church leaders.[90][91][92] A person who is withdrawn from is typically excluded from all Church meetings and social contact with members, including family. The PBCC does not issue formal guidelines on how families should respond, and in some cases, individuals remain in contact with relatives who have left the fellowship.[89]

In Britain, the Brethren have faced scrutiny over the alleged practice of "shutting up", in which individuals are reportedly confined at home as a form of internal discipline. In one case in 2012, six girls from Wilton Park School were allegedly confined for 37 days after creating a Facebook page. The school trust denied the claim and invited a formal investigation. The local authority and police later found the complaint to be groundless.[93][94][95]

[edit]

The PBCC has been involved in several legal cases, particularly related to defamation and copyright claims involving critics and former members.

In 1984, Dutch Open Brethren theologian Willem Ouweneel prepared a German translation of his book on the history of the Brethren movement, which included commentary on the Aberdeen incident. Members of the Brethren brought a legal complaint over the accuracy of the account. Ouweneel later issued a public retraction. According to sociologist Massimo Introvigne, Ouweneel later accepted that 'a number of documents and witness testimonies showing that most accusations against Taylor Jr. had been fabricated by his opponents.'[96]

In 1992, the Brethren filed a NZ$3.2 million defamation suit against New Zealand MP Nick Smith following his public criticism of the group during a family custody case. The case was ultimately withdrawn without payment, and the Brethren later issued an apology.[97]

In 1997, former member Dick Wyman created an online guestbook site to help ex-members reconnect. The site evolved into exclusivebrethren.net. In 2004, the PBCC filed a defamation suit against Wyman and the site was taken offline.[98]

A US-based website, peebsnet.com, was founded by former Brethren member Tim Twinam and later shut down following alleged copyright infringement. According to a church spokesperson in 2006, the church itself was not responsible for the action, though individuals may have acted within their legal rights to protect themselves.[99][98]"

Leaving the fellowship

[edit]

Leaving the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC), whether by personal choice or excommunication, can result in significant social and practical disruption. Former members report that departure often leads to a loss of family contact, community support, or potentially employment however a Brethren spokesperson 'rejected any suggestion that ex-members were forced to quit their jobs at the request of the church or its leadership'.[98] According to the PBCC, individuals who are withdrawn from are now followed up to ensure they are not left in financial hardship, though the group acknowledges that this has not always been the case.[100] This claim has been disputed by former members, including in submissions made during the UK Charity Commission’s 2012–2014 investigation into the Preston Down Trust.[101]

The Aberdeen incident of 1970

[edit]

The most significant rupture occurred in July 1970 during meetings held in Aberdeen, Scotland, sometimes referred to as the "Aberdeen incident." During these meetings on 25 July, James Taylor Jr., then leader of the Raven–Taylor faction, was reportedly intoxicated and was later alleged to have engaged in inappropriate conduct with a married member of the fellowship.[102] The incident caused a significant division within the movement. In Scotland, the majority of assemblies severed ties with Taylor Jr., with reports suggesting that only two families in Aberdeen and approximately 200 out of 3,000 members in Scotland remained in fellowship with him.[103]

Supporters of Taylor Jr. defended him, asserting that he remained spiritually sound and that the events in Aberdeen were divinely permitted to test the faith and loyalty of the fellowship.[104] One interpretation held by members was that Taylor had acted provocatively to reveal opposition within the group.[105]Taylor Jr. died later that same year.

Notable PBCC members

[edit]

The following individuals were associated, at least for part of their lives, with the religious group now known as the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church.

[edit]

The group incorporated under the name Plymouth Brethren (Exclusive Brethren) Christian Church Limited in 2012. Since 2017 they have used the name Plymouth Brethren Christian Church.[110] The organisation is registered as:

  • A public company limited by guarantee in Australia (ACN 158 542 075)[110]
  • A private company limited by guarantee in the United Kingdom (company number 08175944)[111]
  • A limited company in New Zealand (company number 8041708)[112]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Founded as Plymouth Brethren. Became known as Exclusive Brethren in 1848. Incorporated as Plymouth Brethren (Exclusive Brethren) Christian Church Limited in 2012, then formally branded as Plymouth Brethren Christian Church Limited in 2017
  2. ^ The Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren emerged from the split.
  3. ^ A BBC television programme (no. LRP1383E) broadcast 26 September 1976
  4. ^ Aired in New Zealand on TV3 Thursday, 18 August 2005.
  5. ^ Released in Canada on 27 March 2022.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d "About the church". Together We Are Brethren. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  2. ^ Lineham, Peter, ed. (2012). "Plymouth Brethren". The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. The name most strongly associated with it as founder is John Nelson Darby
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gribben, Crawford (2021). "Brethren and separation" (PDF). Journal of CESNUR: 18–36. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  4. ^ a b c d e Dickson, Neil. "The Plymouth Brethren: A Review Article" (PDF). Brethren Historical Review. 14: 153. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  5. ^ Introvigne, Massimo (2018). The Plymouth Brethren. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 81.
  6. ^ a b Piepkorn, Arthur Carl (1970). "Plymouth Brethren (Christian Brethren)" (PDF). Concordia Theological Monthly. 41 (3): 169. Retrieved 3 July 2025.
  7. ^ "Exclusive Brethren". Reachout Trust. 9 January 2008. Archived from the original on 31 October 2004.
  8. ^ "Top marks for sect schools that shun the modern world". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
  9. ^ Bachelard, Michael (21 January 2020). "Exclusive Brethren cult leader's millionaire son accused of assault". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  10. ^ "Hidden prophets". The Sydney Morning Herald. 1 July 2006. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
  11. ^ a b c "Educator Insights: The pioneering school that 'stretches across the world'". The Educator Australia. 1 July 2006.
  12. ^ "Basic teaching in the Exclusive Brethren". The Exclusive Brethren official website. The Exclusive Brethren. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 1 March 2007.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Buchanan, Abigail (9 March 2025). "What I saw inside Britain's most secretive Christian group". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 10 March 2025.
  14. ^ a b c Bachelard 2008, p. 34
  15. ^ 1 Corinthians 14:34
  16. ^ "Family life in the Exclusive Brethren". The Exclusive Brethren official website. The Exclusive Brethren. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 1 March 2007.
  17. ^ a b Bouma, Gary D (18 May 2006). "An Investigation into Marriage and Family Relations Among the Exclusive Brethren in Australia" (PDF). Monash University. Retrieved 15 January 2007.
  18. ^ Noel 1936, p. 590ff
  19. ^ "My Brethren - Doctrine - Sonship of Christ".
  20. ^ Ministry by J. Taylor, Vol 29: pp 361-74, Kingston Bible Trust
  21. ^ Noel 1936, pp. 607–631
  22. ^ a b "James H. Symington (1913–1987)". PBCC. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  23. ^ a b "John S. Hales (1922–2002)". PBCC. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  24. ^ "Bruce D. Hales (1953–)". PBCC. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  25. ^ "Charity Commission will accept application for registration from Preston Down Trust after organisation agrees to amend governing document". Charity Commission. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
  26. ^ Gower, Patrick (14 October 2006). "Behind the Brotherhood: The Elect Vessel, Bruce Hales". The New Zealand Herald. APN Holdings NZ Limited. Archived from the original on 23 February 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
  27. ^ "About our Community". plymouthbrethrenchristianchurch. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  28. ^ Bachelard 2008, pp. 179–181
  29. ^ "Exclusive Brethren Scoops Contracts". The New Daily. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
  30. ^ a b c Knowles, Steve (2021). "The appropriation of information and communication technologies by the Plymouth Brethren Christian church". Journal of CESNUR. 5 (2): 92–112. doi:10.26338/tjoc.2021.5.2.5. ISSN 2532-2990.
  31. ^ Knowles, Steve. "Dr Steve Knowles". University of Chester. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  32. ^ "Home". streamline3.com. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  33. ^ "Can Streamline3 be installed on a non-UBT mobile device ?". UBT Telecoms. 2 January 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  34. ^ Manson, Bess (13 October 2024). "One woman's story of leaving the Exclusive Brethren – and why she's dedicated to helping others on the outside". www.thepost.co.nz. The Post. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  35. ^ "Home". streamline3.com. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  36. ^ "Streamline3". Streamline3. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  37. ^ "Our Network". Plymouth Brethren Church.
  38. ^ "Home - Rapid Relief Team". rrtglobal.org.
  39. ^ "Who We Support - Rapid Relief Team". www.rrtglobal.org. 4 May 2020.
  40. ^ "Australian Parliament praises efforts of Rapid Relief Team volunteers". 14 September 2023.
  41. ^ "Australian Parliament praises efforts of Rapid Relief Team volunteers". Plymouth Brethren Christian Church. 14 September 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2025.
  42. ^ "Winnipeg Police Agreed to Promote 'Secretive and Strict' Religious Sect, Internal Emails Show". PressProgress. 4 June 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
  43. ^ "RRT donates its millionth meal to Ukraine". Plymouth Brethren Christian Church. 21 June 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2025.
  44. ^ "Universal Business Team sets a global standard". Dayforce. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  45. ^ "UBT". Universal Business Team. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  46. ^ The Church, the Conservatives, and the COVID contracts Canadaland November 14, 2022
  47. ^ Former Exclusive Brethren members hit with dawn raids, legal suits after speaking out against the secretive Christian sect Stuff, 9 August 2020.
  48. ^ a b "Oneschool Global". Oneschool Global. Retrieved 16 July 2025. OneSchool is one of the world's largest and most comprehensive, truly global schools. With over 8,000 students, 120+ campuses and more than 2,000 staff and volunteers operating across 20 countries, OneSchool's global education ecosystem provides an environment in which our staff and students thrive.
  49. ^ "Greens call for Brethren investigation". News.com.au. 29 December 2006. Archived from the original on 28 July 2007. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
  50. ^ a b Halpin, Tony (21 March 2005). "Top marks for sect schools that shun the modern world". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
  51. ^ "2013 Campus Directory" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  52. ^ "Plymouth Prospectus" (PDF). Oneschool Global. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
  53. ^ Bachelard 2008, p. 174-
  54. ^ "Who are the Exclusive Brethren Christian Fellowship?". The Exclusive Brethren official website. The Exclusive Brethren. Archived from the original on 23 February 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2007.
  55. ^ a b Marr, David (1 July 2006). "Hidden prophets". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
  56. ^ Davis, Richard (2006). "Media Coverage of the Exclusive Brethren in Australia and New Zealand". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
  57. ^ Doherty, Linda (16 September 2005). "Brethren linked to Howard campaign". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 15 January 2007.
  58. ^ Marr, David (20 January 2007). "Sect member funded anti-Greens campaign". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
  59. ^ Bachelard, Michael (22 August 2007). "Brethren meet PM in his office". The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved 22 August 2007.
  60. ^ a b Coorey, Phillip (23 August 2007). "Brethren still a cult in Rudd's book". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
  61. ^ Bachelard, Michael (27 December 2006). "Brown demands sect inquiry". The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved 15 January 2007.
  62. ^ Marris, Sid (23 August 2007). "Exclusive Brethren attacks Rudd". The Australian. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
  63. ^ "Rudd won't meet 'extremist' Brethren". ABC News. ABC. 22 August 2007. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
  64. ^ "Exclusive Brethren extremist cult - Rudd". Sydney: AAP General News Wire. 22 August 2007. p. 1. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010.
  65. ^ FireStorm Black Saturday's Tragedy Dennis Jones & Associates PTY Ltd. 2009 ISBN 978-0-646-52130-5
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  67. ^ "PM – Howard defends meeting the Exclusive Brethren". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 22 August 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  68. ^ "Four Corners – 12/10/2007: The Brethren Express". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 15 October 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  69. ^ "Copy of the Brethren Anti-Green political leaflet issued in March 2006" (PDF). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. (739 KiB) See Elusive Exclusive Brethren for article transcript.
  70. ^ "Christian sect members attack Tas Greens". ABC Radio National. 15 March 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2007.
  71. ^ "Elusive Exclusive Brethren – Background Briefing – ABC Radio National (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 4 February 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
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Bibliography

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