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List of sultans of Sulu

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Sultan of Sulu
سلطان سولو (Tausug)
Sultan sin Sūg
Flag of the Sultanate of Sulu
Last sovereign ruler
Jamalul Kiram II
22 February 1894 – 22 March 1915
Details
StylePaduka Mahasari Maulana al-Sultan[a]
First monarchSharif ul-Hāshim
Formationc. 1450
ResidenceDarul Jambangan[1]
AppointerRuma Bechara (hereditary in practice)
Pretender(s)
Disputed[2][3]
  • Muedzul Lail Tan Kiram (House of Kiram)
  • Phugdalun Kiram II (House of Kiram)
  • Ibrahim Q. Bahjin-Shakirullah II (House of Bahjin)
  • Muizuddin Jainal Abirin Bahjin (House of Bahjin)
  • Mohammad Venizar Julkarnain Jainal Abirin (House of Abirin)
  • and others

Sultans began ruling Sulu, a Sunni Muslim thalassocracy originating in today's Philippines, starting in the 15th century. They were Tausūg members of the royal family who had been previously elected, typically from the male-line heirs, as heirs apparent (Raja Muda) by the council of Datus and Sharifs, known as the Ruma Bechara.[5]

The sultanate began losing power during the 19th century, culminating in the abolition of the sultan's temporal powers in 1915. Since then, save for some instances of recognition by the Philippine government related to the North Borneo dispute, the title of sultan has carried with it no political powers or privileges and became mostly linked to non-sovereign cultural figures.[6][7]

Pre-sultanate kings

[edit]
Further information: Lupah Sug

The island of Jolo was divided into three kingdoms before the sultanate arose. Maimbung was the oldest settlement, followed by those of the Tagimaha (western Jolo) and Baklaya people (northern Jolo).[8]

Three kings from Sulu were recorded in Chinese annals due to their 1417 visit to the court of the Yongle Emperor.[9][4]

  • East King Paduka Pahala (Pāduka Bhaṭṭāra)
  • West King Maharaja Kamalud Din (or Mahalachii)
  • Cave (Dong) King Paduka Patulapok

Paduka Pahala, the East King and the most powerful of the three, fell ill and died during his journey. His eldest son Tumahan returned to Sulu to assume his father's throne, while two younger brothers stayed behind in China, where their descendants live to this day.[9][10]

Soon after, local tradition states that Sharif ul-Hāshim arrived in Sulu and married the princess Dayang-dayang Paramisuli, daughter of local chief Rajah Baguinda, founding the Sultanate of Sulu.[11]

List of sultans

[edit]
Sultans of Sulu from the 15th century to 1936[12]
No. Name Reign Life details
1 Sharif ul-Hāshim
(Abu Bakr) 		c. 1450 – c. 1480
2 Kamal ud-Din c. 1480 – c. 1505
  • Son of Sharif ul-Hāshim.
  • Reigned until his death.[14]
3 Alaud-Din —
  • Son of Sharif ul-Hāshim.
  • "Did not become sultan" (either immediately after his father's death or at all).[14]
  • Lived with his sister Putri Sarip.
4 Amirul Umara
(Diraja) 		c. 1505 – c. 1527
5 Muizzul Mutawadi'in
(Upo) 		c. 1527 – c. 1548
  • Described as a helper of the poor.[16]
6 Nasir ud-Din I
(Awwal) 		c. 1548 – c. 1568
  • Surnamed Digunung or Habud, suggesting he ruled or came from Sulu's interior.[17]
7 Muhammad ul-Halim
(Pangiran Buddiman) 		c. 1568 – c. 1596
8 Batara Shah Tengah
(Pangiran Tengah or Tindig) 		c. 1596 – c. 1608
  • Contested by his cousin Abdasaloan, ruler of Basilan.
  • Killed in battle in Bauang by his cousin's forces.[20]
9 Muwallil Wasit I
(Rajah Bongsu) 		c. 1610 – c. 1650
10 Nasir ud-Din II
(Muhammad Kudarat?) 		c. 1645 – c. 1648
  • Possibly Pangiran Sarikula, younger son of Muwallil Wasit I.
  • Another theory suggests this is Muhammad Kudarat, sultan of Maguindanao and possible son-in-law to Muwallil Wasit.[22][23]
11 Salah ud-Din Bakhtiar c. 1650 – c. 1680
  • Son of Muwallil Wasit I.
  • Known as Bactial, his birth name, by Spanish officials.
  • Contested his father's rule after the death of Pangiran Sarikula.
  • Reigned until his death.[24]
12 Ali Shah —
  • Reign said to be "short and peaceful".[25]
13 Nur ul-Azam —
  • Sister of Salah ud-Din.
  • Ruled as sultana for four or five years.[25]
14 Al Haqunu Ibn Wali ul-Ahad —
  • His name is Arabic for "son of the Raja Muda" (chosen heir apparent).
  • Possibly the son of Pangiran Sarikula and co-ruler with his cousin Salah ud-Din.
  • Speculated to have been a pretender with some following.[25]
15 Shahab ud-Din c. 1685 – c. 1710
  • Son of Salah ud-Din.
  • Killed Sultan Kahar ud-Din Kuda of Maguindanao in 1702.
  • Pressured into ceding Palawan to the Spanish government in 1705.
  • Reigned until his death.[26]
16 Mustafa Shafi ud-Din
(Juhan Pahalawan) 		c. 1710 – c. 1718
  • Younger brother of Shahab ud-Din.
  • Abdicated in favor of his brother Badarud-Din I to avoid dynastic disputes.[26]
17 Badar ud-Din I
(Dungun) 		c. 1718 – 1732
  • Younger brother of Shafi ud-Din.
  • Contested by Nasar ud-Din in 1731.
  • Forced to retire to Tawi-Tawi, where he later died.[26]
18 Nasar ud-Din
(Dipatuan) 		1732 – 1735
  • Either a son or grandson of Shahab ud-Din or a son of Badar ud-Din I.
  • Contested by Badar ud-Din I's son Azim ud-Din I.
  • Left the court for Maimbung, where he later died.
  • Attempted to regain the throne unsuccessfully various times.[27]
19 Azim ud-Din I[b] 1735 – 1748
(1st reign)
  • Son of Badar ud-Din and a Bugis lady from Sulawesi.
  • Proclaimed sultan by his father Badar ud-Din in Tawi-Tawi.
  • Signed a peace treaty in 1737 with Spanish governor Fernando de Valdés.
  • Formed a small army and navy, suppressing piracy.
  • Advocated for education, translating parts of the Quran into Tausug.
  • Forced into exile due to his perceived closeness with Jesuits.[29]
20 Bantilan Muizzud-Din 1748 – 1763
  • Either a son of Shahab ud-Din or a younger brother of Azim ud-Din I.
  • Proclaimed himself sultan after ousting Azim ud-Din I.
  • Reigned until his death.[30]
— Azim ud-Din II 1763 – June 1764
(1st reign)
  • Son of Muizzud-Din.
  • Reigned with his brother after his father's death.
  • Left for Parang after the arrival of Azim ud-Din I from exile.[31]
— Azim ud-Din I[b] June 1764 – 1774
(2nd reign)
21 Muhammad Israil 1774 – 1778
  • Son of Azim ud-Din I.
  • Received his education in Manila, where he learned Spanish customs.
  • Continued his father's controversial progressive policies.
  • Poisoned by his cousin Azim ud-Din II, who assumed the throne.[32]
22 Azim ud-Din II 1778 – 1791
(2nd reign)
  • Reassumed the throne after his cousin's death.
  • Increased hostilities between Sulu and Spain.
  • Reigned until his death.[31]
23 Sharaf ud-Din 1791 – 1808
(17 years)
  • Son of Azim ud-Din I.
  • Reigned until his death.[33]
24 Azim ud-Din III 1808
(40 days)
  • Son of Sharapud-Din.
  • Reigned only for forty days until his death, probably due to a smallpox epidemic.[34]
25 Aliyud-Din 1808 – 1821
(13 years)
  • Younger brother of Azim ud-Din III.
  • Seized the throne while Datu Bantilan, the chosen heir apparent and son of Azim ud-Din II, was absent.
  • Contested by Datu Bantilan, who ruled from Parang.
  • Reigned until his death.[34]
26 Shakirullah 1821 – 1823
(2 years)
  • Younger brother of Aliyud-Din.
  • Considered a deeply pious ruler who sought connection with his subjects.
  • Reigned until his death.[35]
27 Jamalul Kiram I 1823 – 1842
(19 years)
  • Son of Azim ud-Din III. Started the house of Kiram.
  • Strengthened commercial activity.
  • Reigned until his death.[35]
28 Mohammad Pulalun Kiram 1842 – 24 September 1862
(20 years)
  • Son of Jamalul Kiram I.
  • Considered an able administrator and just ruler.
  • Began the Luntar or Sulu annals in 1844.
  • Dealt with further Spanish attacks.
  • Submitted to Spain, which incorporated Sulu as a protectorate in 1851.
  • Reigned until his death.[36]
29 Jamal ul-Azam 1862 – 8 April 1881
(19 years)
  • Son of Mohammad Pulalun Kiram.
  • Revised the law code and conducted various public improvements.
  • Fought Spanish occupation and ruled through their destruction of Jolo.
  • Signed the cession treaties of Sabah to the North Borneo Chartered Company, the controversial wording of which would later lead to the North Borneo dispute.
  • Changed the royal residence to Maimbung.
  • Reigned until his death.[37][38]
30 Badarud-Din II April 1881 – 22 February 1884
(2 years, 10 months)
  • Eldest son of Jamal ul-Azam.
  • Reign marked by the influence of his stepmother Inchi Jamila.
  • Made the first recorded Hajj by a Sulu sultan.
  • Strengthened peace and diplomatic ties with Spain.
  • Reigned until his early death, which sparked a civil war.[39]
31 Harun Ar-Rashid 24 September 1886 – 22 February 1894
(7 years, 4 months)
  • A descendant of Azim ud-Din I through Datu Putong.
  • Initially a mediator between rivals Amirul Kiram and Datu Aliyuddin.
  • Proclaimed sultan by the Spanish authorities.
  • Supported by a minority of the population, which made his rule difficult.
  • Forced to abdicate in favor of Amirul Kiram, the future Jamalul Kiram II.[40]
32 Jamalul Kiram II 22 February 1894[c] – 7 June 1936[d]
(42 years, 4 months)
  • Younger stepbrother of Badarud-Din II.
  • Recognized as sole sultan after Harun Ar-Rashid's abdication.
  • Signed the Kiram–Bates Treaty, keeping Sulu out of the Philippine–American War.
  • Led Sulu through the Moro Rebellion against the United States.
  • Deprived of his sovereignty in 1915, marking the end of the sultanate.
  • Retained his title until his death.[41][42]

Claimants after 1936

[edit]

Partially recognized sultans under the Philippines (1936–1986)

[edit]
See also: North Borneo dispute
A family tree released by the Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines at the height of the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff.

Any claimed political sovereignty of the sultanate was formally abolished in 1915, when Sultan Jamalul Kiram II renounced his remaining territories to the Insular Government.[42][43][44] Its successor state, the Philippines, became a republic which repeatedly attested in its constitutions that no titles of royalty or nobility are recognized. Any payments and recognition of the Sultanate of Sulu from the Philippine government ceased in 1936, after the death of the last sultan.[e]

Despite this, some administrations of the Philippines have held dealings with the House of Kiram. This has been inherently linked to the interests of the Philippines in the North Borneo dispute: in return for some forms of recognition desired by the royal family (described as a "symbolic reenactment of the sultanate"),[46] the Philippines emboldened their claim to the territory of what is now Sabah, which would form Malaysia in 1963.[6]

In 1962, during the negociations for Sabah's union with Malaysia, the Philippine government under Diosdado Macapagal dealt with the royal family in an official capacity by recognizing their claim to Sabah.[6] The Instrument of Cession of the Territory of North Borneo was signed by Sultan Mohammed Esmail Kiram and Vice-President Emmanuel Pelaez on 12 September.[45] This view was repeated by the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos on 24 May 1974, who endorsed Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram's coronation as sultan after his father's death under Memo Order 427, stating that "The Government has always recognised the Sultanate of Sulu as the legitimate claimant to the historical territories of the Republic of Philippines".[47] Marcos' act also acted as an attempt to reduce the Moro National Liberation Front's growing influence in the region.[46]

The descendants of the royal family have also laid their own claim to Sabah, as seen most dramatically in the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff and later in the Malaysia Sulu case.[45] They are still recognised and honoured as de facto royalty by the people in Sulu.[48][7] In some cases, the claimants established religious courts to arbitrate local disputes according to traditional Muslim customs; three of these existed in Sulu in 1963.[f]

Name Reign Life details
Muwallil Wasit II 17 July 1936 – 21 November 1936
(uncrowned; 4 months)
  • Younger brother of Jamalul Kiram II and his Raja Muda (heir apparent).
  • Acclaimed as sultan by the Ruma Bechara after Jamalul Kiram II's death.
  • Contested by Dayang Dayang Piandao, Jamalul Kiram II's niece and adopted daughter.
  • Murdered before the formal coronation ceremony months later.
  • His death created a succession crisis, as no new Raja Muda had been chosen.[45][50][51]
Jainal Abirin II
(Tambuyong) 		20 January 1937 – 14 October 1950
(13 years, 8 months)
  • A datu who was a descendant of Shakirullah.
  • Son-in-law of Jamalul Kiram II through Tarhata Kiram.
  • Acclaimed as sultan in Patikul, from where he ruled.
  • Contested by Ombra Amilbangsa and Esmail Kiram.
  • Supported the American forces in the Pacific War.
  • Reigned until his death.[52][53][54]
Amirul Umara II
(Ombra Amilbangsa) 		29 January 1937 – 20 November 1950
(13 years, 9 months)
  • Son-in-law of Jamalul Kiram II through Dayang Dayang Piandao.
  • Acclaimed as sultan in Maimbung, from where he ruled.
  • Contested by Jainal Abirin II and Esmail Kiram. The latter was persuaded to become his heir rather than another rival to the throne.
  • Entered politics, often supporting independence for the Province of Sulu.
  • Collaborated with the Japanese government in the Pacific War.[45][38]
Mohammed Esmail Kiram 20 November 1950 – December 1973
(23 years)
Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram 24 May 1974 – 16 February 1986
(11 years, 8 months)
  • Son of Mohammed Esmail Kiram.
  • Coronated in a ceremony sponsored by Ferdinand Marcos, whose administration would continuously support him.
  • Contested by his brother Punjungan and later his nephew Jamalul.
  • Reigned until his death.
  • Last sultan to be awarded titular recognition by the Philippine government.[55][47]

Unrecognized sultans (1986–present)

[edit]

After Mahakuttah Kiram's death and the People Power Revolution, claimants from rival branches of the royal family appeared. Corazon Aquino was reluctant to renew the Sabah dispute, a position maintained by the succeeding Philippine governments.[46] The administration of Benigno Aquino III studied the succession dispute in 2013, making no declarations of support to any of the contenders.[48] By 2016, there were at least five main pretenders to the title of sultan of Sulu.[3]

Name Reign Life details
Jamalul Kiram III 15 June 1986 – 20 October 2013
(27 years, 4 months)
  • Son of Punjungan Kiram, younger son of Esmail Kiram and pretender from 1980.
  • Crowned as self-proclaimed sultan after Mahakuttah Kiram's death.
  • Named sultan together with his brother Esmail after an agreement in 2012.
  • His brother Agbimuddin invaded Sabah, resulting in the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff, after which both were classified as terrorists by the Malaysian government.
  • Contested by his cousin Muedzul (from 2012) and numerous other pretenders.
  • Maintained his claim until his death.[56][57][58]
Ismael Kiram II[g] 12 March 2001 – 19 September 2015
(14 years, 6 months)
  • Younger brother of Jamalul Kiram III and his Raja Muda (chosen heir apparent).
  • Self-proclaimed as "reigning sultan" from 2001, when Jamalul Kiram III left for Manila.
  • Named sultan together with his brother Jamalul after an agreement in 2012.
  • Contested by his cousin Muedzul (from 2012) and numerous other pretenders.
  • Maintained his claim until his death.[59]
Muedzul Lail Tan Kiram 16 September 2012 – present
(12 years, 9 months)
  • Eldest son of Mahakuttah Kiram and his Raja Muda (chosen heir apparent).
  • Last recognized Raja Muda. Did not receive government recognition after his father's death due to the ousting of Ferdinand Marcos and his young age, which disallowed him from assuming the throne.
  • Established the Royal and Hashemite Order of the Pearl in 2011.
  • Crowned on Maimbung's historic coronation site in 2012.
  • Contested by his cousin Jamalul, his later successors, and numerous other pretenders.
  • One of the current claimants to the throne.[1][60][46]
Phugdalun Kiram II 6 February 2016 – present
(9 years, 4 months)
  • Younger brother of Esmail Kiram II and his Raja Muda (chosen heir apparent).
  • Installed as self-proclaimed sultan in Patikul.
  • One of the litigants in the Malaysia Sulu case, which sought billions of US dollars from Malaysia through forum shopping.
  • Contested by his cousin Muedzul and numerous other pretenders.
  • One of the current claimants to the throne.[61]
Pretenders from other houses
  • House of Abirin
    • Mohammad Venizar Julkarnain Jainal Abirin[3]
  • House of Bahjin
    • Ibrahim Q. Bahjin-Shakirullah II (2004–present)[3][62]
    • Muizuddin Jainal Abirin Bahjin[3][63]

Genealogical chart

[edit]
Genealogical chart of Sulu sultans
Adnan
Ma'ad
Nizar
Mudar
Ilyas
Mudrikah
Khuzaymah
Kinana
Al-Nadr
Malik
Fihr
Ghalib
Lu'ayy
Ka'b
Murrah
Kilab
Qusayy
Abd Manaf
Hashim
Abd al-Muttalib
Abu TalibAbdullah
Muhammad
AliFatima
HusaynHasan
Ali Zayn
al-Abidin
Muhammad
al-Baqir		Hasan
al-Muthanna
Ja'far
al-Sadiq		Abdullah
al-Kamil
Ali
al-Uraydi		Musa
al-Jawn
Muhammad
al-Naqib		Abdullah
al-Rida
IsaMusa al-Thani
Ahmad
al-Muhajir		Muhammad
al-Akbar
UbaydullahAbdullah
AlawiAli
MuhammadSulayman
AlawiHusayn
Ali Khali' QismIsa
Muhammad
Sahib Mirbat		Abd al-Karim
AlawiMuta'in
AbdullahIdris
Sharifate
of Mecca
AliQatada
r. 1201-1220
MuhammadAli
AbdullahHasan
r. 1250-1253
AhmadMuhammad
Abu Numayy I
r. 1250-1301
Daughter
of a sultan		Ali Zayn
al-Abidin		Raja
Baguinda		Rumaythah
r. 1301-1345
Sultanate
of Sulu		Sultanate of
Maguindanao
1
Sharif
ul-Hāshim
r. 1450-1480		ParamisuliSharif
Muhammad
Kabungsuwan
r. 1520-1543		Ajlan
r. 1344-1372
Sultanate
of Brunei
2
Kamal ud-Din
r. 1480-1505		3
Alauddin		Sharif
Maka-alang
r. 1543-1574		Sharif Ali
r. 1425-1432
4
Amirul Umara I
r. 1505-1527		Sulaiman
r. 1432-1485
5
Muizzul
Mutawadi'in
r. 1527-1548		Bolkiah
r. 1485-1524
6
Nasiruddin I
r. 1548-1568		Abdul Kahar
r. 1524-1530
7
Muhammadul
Halim
r. 1568-1596		Saiful Rijal
r. 1533-1581
8
Batara
Shah Tengah
r. 1596-1608		Putri SuluMuhammad
Hasan
r. 1582-1598		Sharif
Bangkaya
r. 1574-1578
9
Muwallil
Wasit I
r. 1610-1650		Kapitan
Laut Buisan
r. 1597-1619		Gugu
Sarikula
r. 1585-1597		Raja Putri
11
Salahuddin
Bakhtiar
r. 1650-1680		12
Ali Shah		10
Nasiruddin II
r. 1645-1648		Daughter14
Al Haqunu
15
Shahabuddin
r. 1685-1710		16
Mustafa
Shafiuddin
r. 1710-1718		17
Badaruddin I
r. 1718-1732		13
Nurul Azam
18
Nasaruddin
r. 1732-1735		19
Azim ud-Din I
r. 1735-1748,
1764-1774		20
Bantilan
Muizzuddin
r. 1748-1763
22
Muhammad
Israil
r. 1774-1778		23
Sharafuddin
r. 1791-1808		21
Azim ud-Din II
r. 1763-1764,
1778-1791		Datu Putong
24
Azim ud-Din III
r. 1808		25
Aliyuddin I
r. 1808-1821		26
Shakirullah
r. 1821-1823		Datu Dadung
27
Jamalul
Kiram I
r. 1823-1844		Datu BuyokDatu Ja'afar
28
Mohammad
Pulalun Kiram
r. 1844-1862		Datu DakulaDatu Zulkifli
29
Jamalul Azam
r. 1862-1881		Datu Uyong31
Harun
Al Rashid
r. 1886-1894
30
Badarud-Din II
r. 1881-1884		32
Jamalul
Kiram II
r. 1894-1915
– Titular –
r. 1915-1936		Muwallil
Wasit II
r. 1936		Jainal Abidin
r. 1937–1950
Amirul
Umara II
r. 1937-1950		Dayang
Dayang
Piandao		Muhammad
Ismail
Kiram I
r. 1950-1974		Muhammad
Punjungan
Kiram		Jamalul
Abidin
Muhammad
Mahakuttah
Abdullah
Kiram
r. 1974-1986		Fuad
Abdullah
Kiram		Jamalul
Kiram III		Aguimuddin
Abidin		Ismail
Kiram II		Phugdalun
Kiram II
Muizzul Lail
Tan Kiram

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Arabic: فادك مهاسري مولانا السلطان, romanized: Fāduka Mahāsrī Maūlānā al-Sulṭān, lit. 'The Master, His Majesty, Protector, and Sultan'. The titles are of Arabic and Sanskrit origin.[1][4]
  2. ^ a b During his exile, he would convert to Christianity and be baptized as Don Fernando de Alimud Din, with the regnal name of Ferdinand I. It's unclear whether this was his genuine desire or merely a political move. He returned to his original name and religion prior to being restored to the throne.[28]
  3. ^ Claimed the throne from Badarud-Din II's death in 1884.
  4. ^ Titular from 22 March 1915, when he reliquished all his sovereignty to the United States government.
  5. ^ After the death of Sultan Jamalul Kiram II in 1936, L. H. Foulds, British Consul-General in Manila, inquired the government of the Philippines, successor in sovereignty to the United States of America, regarding the successor to the late sultan. The Philippines replied that they were no longer recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu nor any person that might be appointed as a successor to the late sultan, as Foulds later reported in a letter to the governor of North Borneo dated 28 July 1936. Any Philippine government payments to the royal family were also terminated. Foulds's claim was rebutted by heirs to the late sultan, although the government later restated this position in a memorandum by President Manuel L. Quezon.[45]
  6. ^ They were headed by Mohammed Esmail Kiram (judged cases from southeastern Jolo), Datu Hadji Amilbangsa (father of Ombra Amilbangsa; judged cases from the southern islands), and Jamalul Abirin (son of Jainal Abirin II; judged cases from northeastern Jolo).[49]
  7. ^ Due to different regional spellings, his name appears as Esmail, Esmael, Ismail, or Ismael.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Clavé, Elsa (2 January 2024). "Dressing up the Monarch: Authority and its representation in the Sulu sultanate royal tradition (19th–21st century)". Indonesia and the Malay World. 52 (152): 76–96. doi:10.1080/13639811.2024.2325226. ISSN 1363-9811.
  2. ^ "Royal Council of the Sulu Sultanate to present stand on Sabah and Federalism soon". MindaNews. 30 May 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
  3. ^ a b c d e Lucero, Todd Sales (22 March 2023). "Sulu, sultan, and sovereignty". Philstar.com. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
  4. ^ a b Orlina, Roderick (2018). "Revisiting Sulu Relics: Islamic Epigraphy from Jolo, Philippines". Writing for Eternity: A Survey of Epigraphy in Southeast Asia. Paris: French School of the Far East. ISBN 9782855391502. Retrieved 24 June 2025.
  5. ^ Fowler, Dennis Bryce (1 June 1985). "The Moro problem: an historical perspective". p. 14. Retrieved 13 June 2025. One of the primary functions of the Ruma Bechara was to choose the heir to the sultan.
  6. ^ a b c Ortiz, Pacifico A. (31 March 1963). "Legal Aspects of the North Borneo Question". Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints. 11 (1). ISSN 2244-1638. Retrieved 17 June 2025.
  7. ^ a b McGeown, Kate (24 February 2013). "How do you solve a problem like Sabah?". BBC News. Retrieved 17 June 2025.
  8. ^ Tan 2010, p. 88.
  9. ^ a b "Paduka Batara (d. 1417)" (PDF). National Historical Commission of the Philippines. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
  10. ^ "The enduring legacy of the East King of Sulu in Chinese-Filipino diplomacy". Asian Century Journal. 7 January 2024.
  11. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 161–162.
  12. ^ Majul 1977, p. 180.
  13. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 161–162; Majul 1973, pp. 12–13; Tan 2009, p. 43.
  14. ^ a b Majul 1973, p. 13.
  15. ^ Majul 1973, p. 13; Scott 1994, p. 178.
  16. ^ Majul 1973, pp. 13–14.
  17. ^ Majul 1973, pp. 14.
  18. ^ Majul 1977, p. 174; Scott 1994, p. 178.
  19. ^ a b Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. The Philippine island of Sulu declared its independence from Brunei in 1578, the year of Spanish occupation, and was never recovered. In 1622, the sultan of Brunei gave his holdings in northern Borneo to the sultan of Sulu in exchange for his help in suppressing a rebellion.
  20. ^ Majul 1973, pp. 14–15.
  21. ^ Orosa 1931, p. 25; Majul 1973, p. 15.
  22. ^ a b Nicholl, Robert (1991). Raja Bongsu of Sulu: A Brunei hero in his times. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. ISBN 9789839961430.
  23. ^ Majul 1973, p. 16.
  24. ^ Saleeby 1908, p. 179; Majul 1973, p. 16.
  25. ^ a b c Majul 1973, p. 17.
  26. ^ a b c Majul 1973, p. 18.
  27. ^ Saleeby 1908, p. 179; Majul 1973, p. 18.
  28. ^ Saleeby 1908.
  29. ^ a b Saleeby 1908, pp. 180–187; Orosa 1931, pp. 26–29; Majul 1973, p. 19.
  30. ^ Orosa 1931, p. 26; Majul 1973, p. 19.
  31. ^ a b Orosa 1931, p. 29; Majul 1973, p. 20.
  32. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 187–191; Orosa 1931, p. 29; Majul, pp. 19–20.
  33. ^ Saleeby 1908, p. 191; Orosa 1931, p. 29; Majul 1973, p. 20.
  34. ^ a b Saleeby 1908, pp. 191–193; Majul 1973, p. 20.
  35. ^ a b Saleeby 1908, pp. 193–194; Majul 1973, p. 21.
  36. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 199–219; Majul 1973, p. 21.
  37. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 218–234; Majul 1973, p. 21.
  38. ^ a b c Quezon III, Manuel L. (1 March 2013). "North Borneo (Sabah): An annotated timeline 1640s-present". The Explainer. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
  39. ^ Saleeby 1908, pp. 233–237; Orosa 1931, pp. 32–34.
  40. ^ Saleeby 1908, p. 240; Majul 1973, pp. 21–22.
  41. ^ Forbes 1928, pp. 14–16, 39; Majul 1973, p. 22.
  42. ^ a b "Why 'Sultan' is dreaming". Daily Express. 27 March 2013. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  43. ^ Graham Kemp; Douglas P. Fry (2004). Keeping the Peace: Conflict Resolution and Peaceful Societies Around the World. Psychology Press. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-0-415-94761-9.
  44. ^ K. S. Nathan; Mohammad Hashim Kamali (January 2005). Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-981-230-282-3.
  45. ^ a b c d e Kadir, Norizan; Mansor, Suffian (31 October 2017). "Reviving the Sultanate of Sulu Through its Claim over Sabah, 1962-1986 (Menghidupkan Semula Institusi Kesultanan Sulu Melalui Tuntutan ke atas Sabah, 1962-1986)". Akademika. 87 (3). ISSN 0126-8694. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
  46. ^ a b c d Karim, Wazir Jahan (27 August 2019). Global Nexus, The: Political Economies, Connectivity, And The Social Sciences. World Scientific. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-981-323-245-7. Retrieved 1 July 2025.
  47. ^ a b "Memorandum Order No. 427, s. 1974". Official Gazette. Office of the President of the Philippines. 10 May 1974. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
  48. ^ a b Nawal, Allan; Alipala, Julie; Ubac, Michael Lim (27 February 2013). "Palace unsure on rightful sultanate heir, about financier". INQUIRER.net. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
  49. ^ Arce, Wilfredo F.; Stone, Richard L.; Eslao, Nena B. (1963). "Social Organization of the Muslim Peoples of Sulu". Philippine Studies. 11 (2). Ateneo de Manila University: 242–266. ISSN 0031-7837. JSTOR 42719847. Retrieved 22 June 2025.
  50. ^ "RAJAH MUDA NAMED SULTAN OF MOROS; Solemn Ceremony Held in the Sacred Room of the Palace on Jolo Island". The New York Times. 18 July 1936. Retrieved 2 July 2025.
  51. ^ "THE PHILIPPINES: Wasit to Paradise". Time. 30 November 1936. Archived from the original on 15 December 2008.
  52. ^ Caceres, Michael Vincent P.; Paragas, Charina F. (2024). "Rising Sun in the Southern Land: Destruction and Resistance in Sulu and Tawi-Tawi Archipelago (1941-1945)". International Social Science Review. 9. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
  53. ^ a b "New Sultan of Sulu Named". The New York Times. 20 November 1950. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
  54. ^ Philippine Law Journal. Vol. 26. University of the Philippines, College of Law. 1951. p. 203. On January 20, 1937 Jainal Abirin II was crowned Sultan with Princess Tarhata as Crown Princess.
  55. ^ a b Gowing, Peter G. (1979). Muslim Filipinos: Heritage and Horizon. New Day Publishers. p. 56. ISBN 978-971-10-0240-4.
  56. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sulu Government was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  57. ^ "So, who's the real sultan?". The Star. 13 July 2008. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2025.
  58. ^ Omar, Ibrahim S. (10 July 2018). Diary of a Colonized Native: (Years of Hidden Colonial Slavery). Partridge Publishing Singapore. ISBN 978-1-5437-4327-2. Retrieved 14 June 2025.
  59. ^ Floyd Whaley (21 September 2015). "Esmail Kiram II, Self-Proclaimed Sultan of Sulu, Dies at 75". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
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  61. ^ Echeminada, Perseus (6 February 2025). "Sulu Sultan Phugdalun Kiram II Seeks $25 Billion Claim Against Malaysia at UN". Daily Tribune. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
  62. ^ Fonbuena, Carmela (15 March 2013). "Meet the Royal House of Patikul". RAPPLER. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
  63. ^ Diaz, Christopher M. (26 June 2014). "MEETING THE SULTAN OF SULU". TREKERO. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
General
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