Lango people (South Sudan)

Lango is a Nilo-Hamites ethnic group originating in South Sudan. They are nomadic agriculturists and Pastoralists. The Lango live in the [[Ikwoto County area of Eastern Equatoria State. This region borders Uganda to the South and their inhabitants are sharing ancestral lines with the Lango of Uganda.

Composition

The Lango are people who are predominantly found all over Ikwoto County of Eastern Equatoria State after the majority migrated to Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Congo. The name of the tribe is the oldest used by all Nilo-Hamites. Lango are both the people and the Language, and it means advancers especially during the great migration era.

Alternative spellings

The name "Lango" can also be spelled as Langgo or Lalangoni when referring to a male, or as Nalangoni for a female. Reconstructing the Lost Kingdom of Ingamu

A Prehistoric Legacy of the Lango People in South Sudan

BY

Mengisto Lofere Henry Lotiti

CONTENTS

Preface 3 Introduction 6 CHAPTER ONE 9 The Lango oral tradition of Ingamu 9 CHAPTER TWO 11 Historical Context 11 CHAPTER THREE 16 The three Laws on Ingamu Kingdom 17 CHAPTER FOUR 19 CHAPTER FIVE 20 CHAPTER SIX 22 CHAPTER SEVEN 23 CHAPTER EIGHT 25 CHAPTER NINE 27 The Decline of Ingamu 27 CHAPTER TEN 29 The Fragmentation of Ingamu 29 CHAPTER ELEVEN 31 The Exodus and the Loss of Identity 31 CHAPTER TWELVE 33 Historical Research on the Decline of Ingamu 33 CHAPTER THIRTEEN 35 Legacy and Influence 35 Conclusion 36 Bibliography 37 Appendix 45 Appendix 51

Preface The journey of writing this book to document the ancient oral stories of the Lango people of South Sudan began in 2008 when I joined Radio Journalism at the Voice of Eastern Equatoria State 97.5 FM. As the Lango Language program presenter and reporter, I developed a keen interest in discussing various cultural topics, including migration and settlement stories of the Lango community. To enrich the program, I regularly invited Elders to share their knowledge during our weekly broadcasts on Mondays from 10:00 AM to 10:30 AM.

During that time, access to mobile telecommunication was limited, making it challenging for individuals from remote villages to participate. However, almost every household had a radio set, thanks to UNICEF's distribution efforts for a Girls’ Education initiative three years prior. This accessibility allowed us to reach a wide audience and foster discussions about our rich heritage, paving the way for the preservation of our cultural narratives.

BOOK SUMMARY

In the heart of northeastern Africa, where the sun dipped into the horizon and painted the sky with hues of crimson and gold, there existed a land known as Ingamu, a name that echoed through the annals of history. It was a place of ancient wisdom, where the whispers of the past mingled with the whispers of the wind. Ingamu, which translates to "the origin of mankind" or "fruitful," was a land of plenty, blessed with gold, impressive architecture, and a vibrant culture that rivaled the greatest civilizations of the world.

The story of Ingamu began thousands of years ago, when Lohidong, a forefather of the Lango people, inhabited the region. He was a just and fair ruler who brought prosperity and peace to his people. According to oral traditions, Lohidong discovered a wild root tuber, which he consumed, and from that moment on, the land was known as Ingamu. His granddaughter, Tolia, was chosen by divine forces to be the first queen of Ingamu, and her reign predated 5000 BC.

Under Tolia's wise leadership, Ingamu flourished, and its people built a mighty empire that stretched across present-day Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, and Djibouti. The Upper and Lower Ingamu Empire was a significant trading center, attracting merchants from far and wide. The empire's wealth was built on its rich resources, including gold and agriculture, which propelled its economic prosperity.

However, as with all great civilizations, Ingamu's glory was not destined to last. Around 3150 BCE, Egypt asserted control over Ingamu, maintaining its dominion for over two thousand years. The Lango people, led by Queen Tolia, revolted against Egyptian authority in 1071 BCE, but her mysterious death, believed to be the result of a violent attack, marked the beginning of the end of Ingamu's centralized authority.

The empire fragmented into smaller factions, led by local chiefs, and the Upper Ingamu Dynasty, which aligned with modern Ethiopia, began to move toward independence under leader Chimiyik. By 1070 BCE, Ingamu transformed into the Kingdom of Kush, established with Meroë as its capital, acclaimed for its military strength and rich cultural heritage.

The Kingdom of Kush flourished until around 350 CE, a period marked by the emergence of the Kingdom of Alodia, which frequently engaged in conflict with breakaway factions. This period of warfare and natural calamities, including famines and river floods, provoked substantial migrations in the 4th century CE, as communities sought refuge and stability in new lands.

As the population of Ingamu diminished, the empire disintegrated into distinct regions: Lower Ingamu (modern Egypt), South Ingamu (Sudan and South Sudan), and Upper Ingamu (parts of Ethiopia and Kenya). The Lango people, who had once thrived in Ingamu, migrated through Abyssinia, eventually establishing an empire under Chimiyik along the boundary of modern-day Ethiopia and Kenya.

One of the Lango groups, led by Lokol, settled on the western shores of Lake Turkana, naming their settlement "Kalokol," which translates to "the place of Lokol." This settlement extended to Lomekwee, meaning "headache," where Lokol ultimately died. The name "Lango," which encompassed various tribes, gradually diminished, surviving only among a few.

Over time, the Lango people continued to migrate, settling in new lands and establishing new communities. Some groups, such as the Karamojong and Toposa, transferred to Turkana, arriving in Kapoeta and Karamoja in successive waves. The Lango groups in Lotukei dispersed in search of more fertile lands, and the Podjulu, Lulubo, Mundari, Bari, Lokoya, and Lotuho established themselves in their respective areas.

The Ifilohi clan, one of the most prominent Lango clans, eventually spread to other regions, leading to their settling in contemporary locations. The name "Imatong" originates from the phrase "Ima otong," meaning "prepare the food in excess," referencing an occasion in their history.

The story of Ingamu is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of its people, who, despite the rise and fall of empires, continued to thrive in the face of adversity. Their legacy can be seen in the modern-day nations of northeastern Africa, where their culture, language, and traditions continue to shape the identity of the people.

As the sun sets over the Ingamu hills, the whispers of the past continue to echo through the valleys, reminding us of a glorious civilization that once flourished in the heart of Africa. The story of Ingamu serves as a reminder of the rich and complex history of the region, a history that is woven into the fabric of the people, their culture, and their traditions.

Introduction For thousands of years, the region now known as South Sudan has been home to a rich and complex history, shaped by the rise and fall of ancient empires, dynasties, and kingdoms. The land, once known as Ingamu, was renowned for its wealth in gold, impressive architecture, and vibrant culture. The story of Ingamu, a name that translates to "the origin of mankind" or "fruitful," is intricately tied to the history of northeastern Africa, encompassing present-day Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, and Djibouti.

According to oral traditions and historical records, the Ingamu Empire was founded by Lohidong, a forefather of the Lango people, who is said to have inhabited the region millions of years ago. This article explores the fascinating history of Ingamu, tracing its development from ancient times to the migration of its people to various parts of the region and examining the legacy of this forgotten empire on the modern-day nations of northeastern Africa.

South Sudan, a nation currently made up of ten states, has a history closely tied to the ancient empires, dynasties, and kingdoms that once thrived in the region, known for their wealth in gold, impressive architecture, and a vibrant culture. The ancient term for Africa was Ingamu, contrasting with later names such as Kemet, Al-Sudan, AlKebulan, and Abyssinia, which originated from foreign languages. Nubia, for example, is derived from an Arabic word signifying "land of gold," while Kemet is a term from the Middle East that translates to "the black land." Al-Sudan also denotes “the black” in Arabic.

Research conducted from 2008 to 2025, documenting Lango oral histories, indicates that the name Ingamu is derived from a type of wild root tuber. The diverse ethnic populations within South Sudan have their own historical narratives. The Lango people, for instance, trace their ancestry back to Ingamu, which historically included areas now known as Abyssinia, Kemet, Sudan, and other regions as noted by historian David, O (1971).

According to Lango tradition, their forefather Lohidong inhabited this extensive territory millions of years ago. His granddaughter, Tolia, is venerated as the first queen of Ingamu, believed to have been chosen by divine forces, with her reign predating 5000 BC (Jones, 2014). History reveals that Egypt and Ethiopia were key components of the significant Upper and Lower Ingamu Empire until around 4025 BCE.

The name Ingamu, translating to "the origin of mankind," is said to have originated from a plant tuber found by Lohidong, who consumed it before being reunited with his wife, Ibangahideng, from another realm. This story finds support in a traditional song documented in 2010, which narrates the history from creation to the migration of the Ingamu Empire to South Sudan in the 4th century.

The term "Aithiops," from Greek, meaning "burnt faces" or "black faces," later gave rise to the name Ethiopia, replacing Upper Ingamu and Abyssinia. In the southern-central parts of Ingamu, "Sudan" referred to the black race, deriving from the Arabic term "Al-aswad," specifically designating the inhabitants of southeastern Ingamu, especially around present-day Khartoum, Nuba, Funj, and southern Sudan.

Historically known as Kaltuma, Khartoum was an ivory trade hub controlled by Queen Tolia. The Upper Ingamu Empire functioned as a crucial trading center, attracting Arab merchants who began to annex parts of the empire, renaming locations between 5000 and 3200 BCE (Jones, 2014). The ancient Egyptians, frequent traders with the Ingamu Empire, dubbed the region Kemet, emphasizing its longstanding history.

According to tradition, traders known as Mudukhuru arrived without women, masking their intentions under the guise of trade. During the Nile floods, many of Ingamu's people relocated to higher ground, and some constructed temporary homes in trees to escape the flooding. The Mudukhuru could return to their origins in regions now known as Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey. Unlike the Ingamu, who used sticks to monitor Nile levels, the Egyptians developed an ancient device called a Nilometer (David, O’C, 1971; Smith, G.C. and El-Kamash, M.M 2021).

The expansive empire, covering present-day Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, and Djibouti, significantly influenced the cultural and economic dynamics of northeastern Africa. The name "Ingamu," which means "fruitful," reflects the area’s rich resources, including gold and agriculture, that further propelled its economic prosperity. Around 3000-2200 BCE, Lohidong established the Ingamu Empire, which saw the rise of structured governance and social hierarchies.

However, by 3150 BCE, Egypt asserted control over Ingamu, maintaining this dominion for over two thousand years. A pivotal moment occurred in 1071 BCE when the Lango people, led by Queen Tolia, revolted against Egyptian authority. Queen Tolia's resistance is a significant narrative in regional history, though her mysterious death, believed to result from a violent attack, remains enigmatic.

After her passing, the Ingamu Empire fragmented into smaller factions led by local chiefs, diluting centralized authority. The Upper Ingamu Dynasty, which aligns with modern Ethiopia, began moving towards independence under leader Chimiyik. By 1070 BCE, Ingamu transformed into the Kingdom of Kush, established with Meroë as its capital, acclaimed for its military strength and rich cultural heritage.

The Kingdom of Kush flourished until around 350 CE, a period marked by the emergence of the Kingdom of Alodia, which frequently engaged in conflict with breakaway factions. This period of warfare and natural calamities, including famines and river floods, provoked substantial migrations in the 4th century CE, as communities sought refuge and stability in new lands. With the population of Ingamu diminishing, the empire disintegrated into distinct regions: Lower Ingamu (modern Egypt), South Ingamu (Sudan and South Sudan), and Upper Ingamu (parts of Ethiopia and Kenya).

From Lower Ingamu, groups like the Lango migrated through Abyssinia, eventually establishing an empire under Chimiyik along the boundary of modern-day Ethiopia and Kenya. Following the death of Chimiyik due to violence, a warrior named Lokol led his people to the western shores of Lake Turkana, naming their settlement "Kalokol," translating to "the place of Lokol." This settlement extended to Lomekwee, meaning "headache," where Lokol ultimately died.

The name "Lango," which encompassed various tribes, gradually diminished, surviving only among a few. Over three million years ago during the Paleolithic era, the flooding of the Nile submerged the people of Lower Ingamu. Forced to inhabit raised areas, the Ingamu began to abandon the territory described by early authors in 3200 BC as Kemet. Lohidong's grandson, Lango, governed Lower Ingamu where the Ingamu Dynasty thrived.

As relentless flooding occurred from April to September, a process referred to as ‘Nolohurogu’ in Lango, Lango’s dynasty succumbed to water, leading to the migration of a new figure named Lokol from Upper Ingamu (Abyssinia) to present-day Kenya, in search of higher ground. Tradition claims Lokol's followers settled on the western shore of what is now Lake Turkana, named after him. These migrants reportedly traveled from Abyssinia with cattle and seeds, fostering trade within the upper and lower Ingamu regions, as noted by the Embassy of the Republic of Kenya in Japan (2022).

The conflict arose when Lokuk, a warrior of Lango descent following Lokol, was stabbed by a figure named Luo, culminating in Lokuk's death. The people commemorated Luo, adopting his name as they fragmented into smaller groups. In honor of Lokuk, the Lango elders announced three days of mourning, the period known as 'Odwa’ (meaning work was forbidden), which reportedly led to the naming of Lodwa, a current location in Kenya.

The Lango traveled through forming lakes, describing one as 'ikuru mai ene mai' or "the rotten one," which generated the name Na Ikuru. Naming conventions extended to areas such as Kenya ("don't eat") and Na Irobi ("the cold one"). These regions were inhabited by the Lango until the 1500s, but by the 1930s, they were occupied by the Toposa, Karamojong, and Turkana groups, all evolving from the original Lango migration from Abyssinia.

The Karamojong and Toposa later transferred to Turkana, arriving in Kapoeta and Karamoja in successive waves, with the Karamojong renaming themselves based on their migration experience. The Lango groups in Lotukei dispersed in search of more fertile lands. The Podjulu were the first to migrate southward towards the Nile, intermingling with the Madi, leading to their incorporation.

Nearby, the Lulubo stayed close to the Podjulu, while the Mundari and Bari successfully crossed the river in two separate waves. The Lokoya, alongside the Lotuho, withdrew, settling in their respective areas without crossing the Nile, fostering friendly relations with the Bari. The final group to depart from Lotukei was the Lango, who established themselves at Itohom, claiming ownership over the hills. The Ifilohi clan was the most prominent at the time, with all other clans eventually joining them until 1795 when they spread to other regions, leading to their settling in contemporary locations.

The name "Imatong" originates from the phrase ‘Ima otong,' meaning "prepare the food in excess," referencing an occasion in which a group from Lotuho sought aid due to a bountiful harvest. The name "Imatong" accurately reflects this meaning, standing in contrast to "Imotong," which obscures its significance. The Lango from villages such as Logire, Lobwaye, Ngutube, and Lohaforok dominated the Imotong Massif, owning fertile volcanic forests labeled Nalul.

Five clans, including Lohubwahai and Lowori, emerged here, with some extending to Palotaka. During the Luo migrations around 1000 AD, Lotaha, a hunter who lived distantly from established settlements, was in the region, leading to the naming of Palotaka, or "for Lotaha" in Acholi. Today, mixed Lango clans still inhabit Palotaka in Magwi county. Lastly, Issuere derives from the Arabic term ‘suere,’ signifying "sister," particularly one serving God within the Catholic Church.

CHAPTER ONE The Lango oral tradition of Ingamu

The Lost Kingdom of Ingamu, a prehistoric legacy of the Lango people in South Sudan, provides a captivating glimpse into a little-known civilization that is crucial to the cultural heritage of the Lango people. This ancient kingdom, shrouded in mystery, is a testament to the rich history and traditions of the Lango community. The kingdom's significance extends beyond its historical importance, as it continues to play a vital role in shaping the identity and cultural practices of the Lango people today. This book aims to shed light on the kingdom's origins through oral traditions that have been passed down for thousands of years, dating back to 3000-2200 BCE, as noted by Hafsaas, H. (2009). These oral histories are replete with mythology and offer a unique insight into the social, political, and spiritual life of the Lango community, providing a fascinating window into the past.

The stories and legends that have been passed down through generations offer a glimpse into the daily lives of the people who lived in the Ingamu Kingdom. They reveal a complex society with a rich cultural heritage, where traditions and customs were deeply intertwined with the natural environment. The oral traditions also highlight the importance of leadership and governance in the kingdom, with stories of wise and just rulers who guided their people with wisdom and compassion. Through these stories, we gain a deeper understanding of the values and principles that underpinned the Ingamu Kingdom, and how they continue to shape the Lango people's cultural identity today.

The art of storytelling is essential to the Lango people, as it helps to preserve their identity and cultural heritage, even in the face of changing times, as observed by Howard, P. (2020). Through stories and songs, the Lango people have managed to keep their history and traditions alive, passing them down from one generation to the next. One notable example of this oral tradition is the song "Nengamu Lohidong…", which not only highlights the institution of kingship and farming practices but also underscores the importance of family connections and the Lango people's deep bond with their land. Such songs and stories play a vital role in maintaining cultural resilience across generations, allowing the Lango people to stay connected to their heritage and cultural roots.

The song "Nengamu Lohidong…" is more than just a nostalgic tribute to the past; it is a living, breathing embodiment of the Lango people's cultural heritage. The song's lyrics and melody have been passed down through generations, and its significance extends beyond its historical context. It continues to be sung and performed today, serving as a powerful reminder of the Lango people's connection to their land and their ancestors. The song's themes of kingship, farming, and family connections also highlight the importance of community and social cohesion in Lango culture.

According to the oral tradition, Lohidong, the founder of the Ingamu Kingdom, was said to have wandered the desert in search of a place to call home. Exhausted and famished, he chanced upon the Ingamu, a wild tuber whose sweet aroma wafted through the air, guiding him to a hidden oasis. The tuber's nourishment revitalized Lohidong, and he knew that he had finally found the land of his ancestors. He settled in the area, and the kingdom of Ingamu flourished under his leadership. As generations passed, the Lango people came to revere the Ingamu not only as a source of food but also as a symbol of their heritage. They believed that the tuber held the secrets of their past, and its consumption connected them to their ancestors.

The story of Lohidong and the Ingamu tuber is a powerful metaphor for the Lango people's connection to their land and their heritage. The tuber's significance extends beyond its practical uses as a source of food; it represents a deep spiritual connection to the natural environment and the ancestors who came before. The story also highlights the importance of leadership and vision in shaping the course of the kingdom's history. Lohidong's determination and resourcefulness in the face of adversity set the tone for the kingdom's future success and prosperity.

According to Lango tradition, Ingamu was one of the original names for Africa, and it was a thriving area where communities excelled in farming and trade, engaging in cultural exchanges with neighboring regions. Each village within the kingdom had its unique customs, which contributed to the rich identity of the Ingamu Kingdom. The rivers served as vital routes for trade, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. The kingdom's strategic location allowed it to become a hub of commerce and cultural exchange, attracting people from far and wide.

The kingdom's prosperity was not limited to its economic success; it was also a center of cultural and artistic innovation. During Queen Tolia's reign, the kingdom experienced both territorial expansion and growth in the arts. The gold jewelry made in Ingamu became famous, attracting traders and sparking rivalry with other kingdoms that had formed later. This competition led some kingdoms to unite against her, posing a significant challenge to her leadership. Despite these challenges, Tolia's wisdom and her strategic alliances with nearby tribes kept Ingamu strong. She led her people with a combination of strategy and compassion, turning potential enemies into allies.

Queen Tolia's legacy is a testament to the enduring power of wise and effective leadership. Her reign is remembered as a golden age in the history of the Ingamu Kingdom, marked by peace, prosperity, and cultural flourishing. The story of her leadership serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of vision, diplomacy, and cooperation in shaping the course of history. As the story of the Tolians, the early Lango people, developed over time, "Ingamu" became a powerful symbol of a shared history rich in diversity.

In a world increasingly shaped by modernization and globalization, the preservation of cultural heritage has become a pressing concern. As communities around the globe face the risk of cultural homogenization, the story of the Lango people offers a powerful reminder of the importance of holding onto one's roots and traditions. At the heart of the Ingamu Kingdom, a remarkable transformation took place among the Tolians, a subgroup of the Lango people, as they rediscovered the value of their cultural heritage through the simple yet powerful act of storytelling.

As the Tolians gathered around evening fires to share stories, a newfound appreciation for their history and traditions emerged. This revival of interest in their cultural heritage not only brought the community together but also ensured the continuation of their legacy for generations to come. The passing down of stories from one generation to the next played a pivotal role in preserving the cultural heritage of the Lango people. As younger generations became increasingly involved in this process, they began to appreciate the rich history and traditions of their ancestors.

The stories shared around the evening fires served as a bridge between the past and the present, connecting the Tolians to their roots and fostering a sense of identity and belonging. This process of storytelling and cultural preservation has opened a unique window into the history and cultural heritage of the Lango people. The compilation of these stories into a book has made it possible for readers to experience the richness and diversity of Lango culture firsthand, offering a fascinating glimpse into the lives and traditions of a people who have managed to maintain their distinct identity despite the passage of time.

The significance of preserving cultural heritage cannot be overstated. As communities around the world face the challenges of modernization and globalization, the risk of cultural homogenization becomes increasingly pronounced. In this context, the efforts of the Tolians to preserve their cultural heritage serve as a beacon of hope, demonstrating the importance of holding onto one's roots and traditions. By doing so, we not only ensure the continuation of our traditions and customs but also provide future generations with a sense of identity and belonging.

The story of the Tolians and the Lango people is a powerful reminder of the importance of cultural preservation. As we navigate an increasingly complex and interconnected world, it is more important than ever to cherish and protect our cultural heritage. The legacy of the Lango people is a testament to the enduring power of cultural heritage and the importance of preserving it for future generations. Through the simple yet powerful act of storytelling, the Tolians have managed to keep their history and traditions alive, offering a unique glimpse into a rich and vibrant culture.

The significance of the Ingamu Kingdom lies not only in its rich history but also in its continued relevance to the Lango people today. The kingdom's legacy serves as a reminder of the importance of preserving cultural heritage and the role that storytelling plays in maintaining cultural identity. As the world continues to evolve and change, the story of the Ingamu Kingdom remains a vital part of the Lango people's cultural fabric, a testament to the enduring power of tradition and cultural heritage. Through this book, the story of the Ingamu Kingdom is brought to life, offering a fascinating glimpse into a little-known civilization that continues to captivate and inspire people to this day.

The Ingamu Kingdom's story is a powerful reminder of the importance of cultural preservation and the role that storytelling plays in maintaining cultural identity. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the story of the Ingamu Kingdom serves as a valuable reminder of the diversity and richness of human cultural experience. The kingdom's legacy continues to inspire and captivate people today, offering a unique window into a little-known civilization that is both fascinating and instructive. By exploring the history and cultural heritage of the Ingamu Kingdom, we gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and nuances of human cultural experience, and the importance of preserving our shared cultural heritage for future generations.

CHAPTER TWO Historical Context

The Ingamu Kingdom is a significant yet often overlooked civilization, particularly for the Lango people of South Sudan. This chapter highlights the foundational legends of Ingamu, preserved through generations of oral tradition. While no specific founding dates exist, these stories assert the dawn of human creation period, blending myth with early human history. Lacking written records, the Lango rely on collective memory to maintain their connection to Ingamu, Abdelrahim, M. (2006).

This reliance on storytelling has helped the Lango preserve a strong cultural identity. Their narratives, often accompanied by songs, reflect their intricate social structure, deep beliefs, and rich history, serving as a living archive of their culture. These oral traditions play a vital role in daily life, linking the past, present, and future through shared experiences. Community storytelling occurs around fires (nibalitok), during celebrations (nikiehino), and at family gatherings (nihayi), fostering a collective understanding that imparts valuable lessons and moral values essential for societal continuity, Hani, M. (2023).

The legends of the Ingamu Kingdom offer a unique perspective on the Lango people's social, political, and spiritual beliefs. They illustrate how the Lango of Ingamu lost Kingdom view their roles in society and their connections to the divine and nature. Themes of bravery, such as those of Tolia, Chimiyik, Lokol, and recently, Lohiti, Alirinyang etc and resilience weave through these tales, reflecting the enduring spirit of a community that has faced numerous challenges while striving to keep its cultural identity intact for future generations, Khan, M. (2021).

Exploring the foundational legends (such as Lohidong, Tolia and Chimiyik) of the Ingamu Kingdom goes beyond academic inquiry; it is a meaningful exploration of Lango culture. This investigation highlights the importance of oral traditions in preserving cultural identity, particularly in communities (e.g. Lango) where written records are lacking. Through these narratives, we can understand the crucial role of memory and storytelling in sustaining cultural heritage. One such song exemplifies this rich tradition.

• Nengamu Lohidong, Lohidong Tolia

Nengamu Lohidong, Lohidong Tolia, Chimiyik! Chimiyik! Lohidong Tolia, Chimiyik! Chimiyik! Lohidong Tolia*

This short song, sung to request rain and relief from crop pests and diseases, offers valuable insights into the origins of the Ingamu Kingdom, citing the transitional order of the legends behind this great lost kingdom. Still performed today, it connects the creation by Loyilik with the early tales of human civilization.

The term "Ingamu" refers to a wild tuber that flourished in the land of Ingamu during the time of Lohidong, the kingdom's first ancestor and founder, as well as the Lango people. The song recounts Ingamu as the ancient and lost kingdom founded by Lohidong,, succeeded by Queen Tolia and it ended with Chimiyik, Queen Tolia was the first female ruler, and mentions Chimiyik, the last king of Ingamu, alongside other forgotten queens and kings. The Lango people believe that Ingamu represents Africa's original name, distinguishing it from later names that emerged as branded and often biased assumptions after 3200 BC, when writing began. Loyilik is described as a formless breeze, and calling his name summons the air. Today, Lango women invoke his name while winnowing grains such as nolosihe (millet before winnowing) and nakite (after husking).

According to Lango tradition, Lohidong was the first being to see the sun on Ingamu soil which means he was the first human on earth before the celestial woman Ibangahideng arrived from an unknown location. Initially mute, Lohidong communicated through signs until Ibangahideng taught him to speak. The tradition recounts:

“Lofa nehuanahi Loyilik Lohidong nifok ho Ingamu, ogumuta fa Lohidong natianya agumuta many nguru nangete Ibangahideng hobe itejien ngete natianya ho tuani.”

These Lango texts translate as, ‘When the deity Loyilik put Lohidong on the land of Ingamu, he (Lohidong) used to communicate in a roaring tone before his wife Ibangahideng taught him the real human language.’ Once Lohidong learned to speak, Ibangahideng shared wisdom with him including the process of forming a family, and together they had five daughters: Nakang, Naboi, Nadai, Namira, and Ihalu, named by Ibangahideng since Lohidong was still learning other things. These names are remembered by a song usually sung during a moon light that goes;

‘Ikang yiee Ikang, Ikang yiee! Ikang yiee Ikang Kangiti, Ikang loroho manya Ikang Kangiti Ikang netiho eroho iji ginyaginya….’

The above song is continued to be sung in cycled array of children and adults alike who entered the centre of the circle once their turn of group order is being mentioned. For instance, the Nakang and Lokang members are the first, Loboi and Naboi are next and goes on until everybody has been invited in the circle. From a mixed circle, the groups enter the circle from different directions including the ones outside the circle once they heard their group is being called in the song. They don’t just enter the circle and stand, but they jump such that the young ones and the short ones could be seen from others not in the circle. This is the real trace of Ibangahideng’s wisdom of teaching.

To continue with the story, as the daughters grew, they discovered that there were only two potential men for them (the daughters of Lohidong) who were too close and unseen to get married to: their father Lohidong and grandfather Loyilik, a formless being were the only males at that era. To close this gap, Ibangahideng cried out,

“*Loyilik! Toluaha nangoruo, obengi holiawa*,” which translates to “Loyilik, help women, they are suffering from lack of men.” Loyilik quickly answered her plea. Within four days, four men with special powers appeared: Lohide, the celestial body keeper; Loholong, the light-bringer; Loharie, the master of night; Lohuju, the rain controller; and Lotimere, the provider of food, wealth and medicines.

After being taught the powers, Nakang, Naboi, Nadai, Namira, and Ihalu all fell in love with the men believed to have been sent by Loyilik. These men possessed the ability to tame animals, which they presented to Lohidong as gifts for their brides. They introduced every domestic animal known today among the Lango, including a dog dispatched to fetch fire from across a large body of water known as ‘Nolokufi’ for Lohidong's family. They also taught the family how to use fire, hunt,, mining and cultivate crops.

After fulfilling their mission that lasted for three years, the men took their wives far from their parents, except for Ihalu, who chose to stay and care for her aging parents after being requested by the parents. These marked the beginning of an in-law staying at the home of the bride for some time usually three to five years before deciding to be independent on his own. The other four established families in different corners of the world and continued to multiply, reuniting after about 81 generations only realized through trading. Ihalu had children, some of whom were named after their parents and others after seasons, contributing to the population growth in Ingamu.

In the heart of a dense, ancient forest, where the trees whispered secrets of the past and the rivers sang songs of time long forgotten, lay the kingdom of Ingamu, a land steeped in mystery and grandeur. Its golden sands and sprawling meadows had cradled generations, yet the true essence of its history had been lost, obscured by the inaccuracies of those who sought to document it. At the center of this tangled web of misinterpretation stood Queen Tolia, the inaugural female monarch of Ingamu. Her name, a melodic echo of strength and wisdom, had been consistently misspelled as "Tasetian" in numerous texts and tomes. This small error, innocent at first glance, spiraled into a cascade of misrepresentation that tarnished not only her legacy but also that of her descendants, the Tolians.

Historians and scholars had unwittingly shrouded the truth about Ingamu in layers of confusion, as if the task of rewriting its narrative were merely an academic exercise rather than a heartfelt tribute to a magnificent heritage. This ancient kingdom was often referred to as "Nubia," a name translating to "golden land." Yet, for the vibrant people of Ingamu, this label felt like a heavy shackle, confining their identity and reducing a complex tapestry of history to an oversimplified term, stripping away the rich nuances that defined their past. For the people of Ingamu, their homeland represented an intricate tapestry of tales woven through the ages, each thread signifying the deep sacrifices, triumphant victories, and sacred beliefs of their ancestors.

The pursuit of historical truth is a journey that often takes us beyond the confines of dusty archives and into the realm of lively oral traditions. It is in these traditions, passed down through generations by elders who gather at twilight to share stories of their ancestors, that we find the authentic narratives of the past. For the Lango, the memory of Queen Tolia is a lasting flame that continues to inspire and empower them. Her legacy is a testament to the power of leadership, dedication, and love for one's land and people.

As a dedicated local researcher, I have always been aware of the inaccuracies that plague historical records. The task of uncovering the truths buried under flawed research is a daunting one, but it is a necessary step towards understanding the rich cultural heritage of the Lango people. My journey began with a deep dive into the Lango heritage, exploring the names, meanings, and stories that had been overlooked or dismissed as insignificant. I sought out the wisdom of the elders, taking notes by candlelight and capturing tales that have stood the test of time.

The song "Nengamu ho Lohidong" is a powerful illustration of the significance of names in Lango culture. Each name carries a meaning that reflects the individual's contribution to the community, as well as the blessings and challenges of their lineage. Understanding this significance has shown me the need for accuracy in preserving history. Without it, the soul of Ingamu and Lango people risks being lost forever.

My research revealed that the history of Ingamu is far more complex and nuanced than previously thought. The community's understanding of their past was fragmented and often inaccurate, reflecting the flaws in historical records. However, as I delved deeper into the oral traditions and stories of the elders, a more complete picture began to emerge. The true story of the Lango’s Ingamu Kingdom and their sacred sites was one of pride, resilience, and a deep connection to their land and heritage.

In 2019, I shared my findings with the Lango community, and the response was overwhelming. The community was eager to learn about their true history and to reclaim their identity as the Kingdom of Ingamu. The Community Chairperson in Juba (elected in 2019), Joseph Quirino Lobeng Ayira, invited me to help create a new collective history that honored Lohidong, Queen Tolia and Chimiyik to celebrate their legacy. This marked the beginning of a powerful movement, as local schools in Ikwoto, the homeland of the Lango in South Sudan began teaching the true history of Ingamu, incorporating names and authentic stories into their curriculum.

The Lango Language Development Committee (LLDC) played a crucial role in recording Ibangahideng's tales in various forms, ensuring that the community's stories and traditions would be preserved for future generations. Community gatherings became vibrant celebrations, where the fires glowed, and stories of Queen Tolia, intertwined with Ibangahideng's narrative, resonated with all. The people of ancient Ingamu, now known as Lango, stepped out of the shadows, proud guardians of their true story, protectors of Queen Tolia's legacy, and spirited defenders of the Tolians' identity.

According to Lango tradition, Queen Tolia was chosen by the divine being Loyilik to be the first queen of the kingdom. This selection was purposeful, as Loyilik entrusted her with three sacred laws to guide the kingdom toward prosperity. However, one of these laws sparked jealousy in neighboring kingdoms, leading to fierce conflicts. The ancient upper and middle regions of Ingamu correspond to present-day Northern Egypt and Southern Sudan, and they were vital parts of the Ingamu Kingdom, known for their resources, trade routes, and fertile lands.

The division of the kingdom into northern and southern regions occurred after the Battle of Ingamu, which ended in the tragic death of Queen Tolia VII. Her brutal murder marked a turning point in Ingamu's history, changing its course forever. Lango traditions provide deep insights into the kingdom's rich history, culture, and values. The oral traditions of living historians highlight Queen Tolia and her descendants' roles in shaping the kingdom's destiny. The Tolians, who governed with wisdom, left a legacy that continues to enhance our understanding of Ingamu's cultural heritage.

As the descendants of Lotimere grew in number, it became more important to remind the community of their shared ancestors, Lohidong and Loyilik. Tolia, the great-great-granddaughter of Lohidong, was selected by Loyilik, who communicated with the Landlord through vivid dreams. Loyilik's will urged the Landlord to crown Tolia as queen, and the next day, the Landlord gathered the people under the Natumi umbrella tree to deliver Loyilik's message. This marked the beginning of "odwa," a time to rest from work, and while some were skeptical, Tolia had a similar dream the following night, revealing the three sacred Laws of Ingamu and confirming her divine role in the kingdom's history.

The story of Queen Tolia and the Kingdom of Ingamu is a testament to the power of tradition, culture, and community. It is a reminder that history is not just a series of events, but a living, breathing narrative that continues to shape our understanding of the world and our place in it. As we move forward, it is essential that we honor the legacy of Queen Tolia and the Tolians, preserving their stories and traditions for future generations. By doing so, we ensure that the soul of Ingamu will continue to shine brightly, a beacon of pride, resilience, and cultural heritage in a world that often seeks to erase or distort the past.

CHAPTER THREE Geographical Location of Ingamu Empire

The ancient kingdoms of North and Eastern Africa were strategically located in regions that facilitated their growth, prosperity, and influence. The geographical location of these kingdoms played a crucial role in shaping their cultures, economies, and interactions with other civilizations. In this book, we will explore the geographical location of some of the most notable ancient kingdoms in North and Eastern Africa, including Egypt, Nubia, Axum, and the Kingdom of Kush. Lower Ingam: The Nile Valley and Beyond The Nile River, one of the longest rivers in the world, was the lifeblood of ancient civilizations in North Africa. The Nile Valley, which stretches from modern-day Sudan to Egypt, was home to some of the most influential kingdoms in African history. Ancient Egypt, located in northeastern Africa, was situated in the northeastern part of the Nile Valley. The kingdom's geographical location allowed it to control the flow of trade and commerce between Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.

To the south of Egypt lay the kingdom of Nubia, which was situated in the Nubian Valley, a region that spans modern-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan. Nubia's strategic location enabled it to control the trade routes between Egypt and the rest of Africa, as well as the rich gold deposits of the region. The Kingdom of Kush, which emerged later, was also located in Nubia and went on to conquer Egypt and establish a powerful dynasty. Southern Ingamu: The Horn and the Red Sea In Eastern Africa, the ancient kingdom of Axum was located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia. Axum's geographical location allowed it to control the trade routes between the Red Sea and the African interior. The kingdom's proximity to the Red Sea facilitated its interaction with the Mediterranean world, and its merchants traded extensively with the Roman Empire and other civilizations.

Axum's location also enabled it to tap into the rich resources of the Ethiopian highlands, including gold, ivory, and precious stones. The kingdom's agricultural productivity was also enhanced by its location in a region with a reliable rainfall pattern. The surrounding mountains and valleys provided a secure and defensible position, allowing Axum to maintain its independence and resist external threats.

The Significance of Geographical Location The geographical location of these ancient kingdoms had a significant impact on their development and prosperity. The Nile Valley, for example, provided a fertile environment for agriculture, which was the backbone of the ancient Egyptian economy. The river also facilitated trade and commerce, enabling the kingdom to import goods and resources from other regions.

Similarly, the location of Nubia and Axum allowed them to control strategic trade routes and tap into the rich resources of their respective regions. The Red Sea and the Nile River provided corridors for the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. Legacy of the Ingamu Kingdom The geographical location of North and Eastern Africa's ancient kingdoms has left a lasting legacy on the region. The Nile Valley continues to be a fertile agricultural region, and the Red Sea remains an important shipping lane. The cultural and economic achievements of these ancient kingdoms have also endured, with many of their traditions and practices continuing to influence contemporary societies in Africa and beyond. In conclusion, the geographical location of North and Eastern Africa's ancient kingdoms played a crucial role in shaping their cultures, economies, and interactions with other civilizations. The strategic locations of these kingdoms enabled them to control trade routes, tap into rich resources, and develop complex societies that have left a lasting legacy on the region.

CHAPTER FOUR The three Laws on Ingamu Kingdom

The first Law mandated the construction of a sacred shrine beneath the Natumi tree, surrounded by a circle of stones symbolizing unity and a connection between the earthly and spiritual realms. A small grinding stone was to be placed at the center, serving as a basin for ritualistic handwashing—a gesture of purification and respect during peaceful times, ceremonies, or in times of disease. This stone's placement that are still being repeated today highlighted the importance of physical and spiritual cleanliness in seeking divine favor.

The first Law also required the community to offer a portion of their first harvest each year to Loyilik, the divine being who blessed their crops. This act of giving the new untouched harvest to the shrine is still made alive today. In the past, this act was both a gesture of gratitude and a plea for continued fertility and prosperity and so does it today. Until now, the grain offered was and is believed to be sacred, ensuring a full granary throughout the year, miraculously replenishing itself—a testament to the Lango people's deep faith in Loyilik’s divine intervention in their agricultural lives.

The second Law instructed every household in the community to build a small personal shrine beneath the dried wood branches of the Natumi tree, using carefully cut and arranged and sometimes decorated branches. This shrine, like the communal one, was to be encircled by stones, with a grinding stone that looked like a basin of an old grindstone positioned inside on the western side of the doorway for holding water. These household shrines served as focal points for family prayers, particularly during sickness or when a family member broke a sacred Law.

To seek forgiveness, family members would perform a ritual where they spit saliva onto the nahujulot (basin-like stone) next to the offending member, symbolizing the expulsion of evil spirits and the restoration of harmony within the family. This act was a plea for healing and reconciliation from Loyilik and Lohidong.

The third Law sternly warned the people of Ingamu against shedding human blood upon the land, emphasizing the sanctity of life and peace. Any violence or bloodshed could provoke divine retribution. Additionally, the Law prohibited the offering of unworthy or unclean animals to Loyilik. The sacrificial ritual involved sprinkling the contents of the animal on the shrine, underscoring the need for purity and worthiness in offerings. This reflected the community's reverence for the divine and the delicate balance between the human and spiritual worlds. This communal handwashing shrine is called Natifine in Lango which looked like a foul’s habitation.

By adhering to these Laws, the people of Ingamu enjoyed many years of prosperity, accumulating wealth in gold, grains, and various goods. The kingdom engaged in trade with distant relatives who were once migrated from Ingamu as the four grand children of the celescial beings described above, leading to the formation of other kingdoms through the exchange of goods obtained from Ingamu, the origin of mankind. To the southwest lay the Nubian Kingdom, to the northeast was the Axum Kingdom, and to the southeast rested Kush all were formed after centuaries or even millenia of trading with Ingamu. The traditional practice of barter trade, known as natobo, is celebrated in a classic song that has been passed down for generations. The song goes like this:

"Itotobo tobotobo nolohurutee, Itotobo tobotobo nolohurutee, Ngai Lonya Nawuro Karabalak! Alitaya ibuo, Ngai Lonya Nawuro Karabalak! Alitaya ibuo."

This traditional melody, often taught to children to preserve cultural heritage, carries a deeper message reflecting the intricacies of the barter trade. When translated, the lyrics convey a story of resilience, stating, "He/she barter trades, but when the hooves of the cow/bull slid, they raised up and got lost." The song illustrates barter trading as a process involving the ground or pounded goods, such as grains. The imagery of a cow or bull's hooves sliding and the subsequent action of raising up and getting lost suggests the traders had to adapt to unexpected challenges that arose during transactions. Serving as an educational tool, the song imparts valuable lessons about perseverance, quick thinking, and community support.

By passing this traditional melody through generations, the community ensures its younger members learn about their cultural heritage and the significance of the barter trade in their history. The song highlights the resourcefulness and determination of those engaged in this traditional practice. Its message transcends the specifics of trade, offering universal lessons on overcoming obstacles and finding creative solutions to unforeseen problems. Consequently, the songs have become integral parts of the community’s cultural identity, inspiring and educating children and everyone else in the community about their heritage.

CHAPTER FOUR Political, Social, religious and economic Organization of Ingamu Empire

The Ingamu Empire was a complex and multifaceted entity that encompassed various aspects of societal organization. Unfortunately, the empire faced numerous challenges, including attacks from neighboring kingdoms driven by envy. These attacks resulted in the tragic death of Tolia, the ruler of Ingamu, whose head was taken by enemies without a trace. This event marked a significant turning point in the history of Ingamu. Following Tolia's demise, Chimiyik ascended to the throne and successfully defeated rival kingdoms. One of his notable achievements was relocating the capital city of Ingamu from its original location on the border of modern-day Egypt and Sudan to the upper part of Ingamu, in present-day southwestern Ethiopia. Here, he constructed a palace on a strategically located mountain to defend against future attacks. The relocation was likely a response to the vulnerability of the previous location and an attempt to consolidate power. During Chimiyik's reign, the lush lower part of Ingamu fell under the control of Axum and other rival kingdoms. Despite this setback, Chimiyik's leadership ensured a period of relative stability, and he eventually passed away from natural causes. He was buried near a riverbank, following the tradition of Lango kings being interred in cooler areas to avoid offending the spirits of their deceased predecessors. However, after Chimiyik's death, the kingdom's unity began to collapse, leading to the mismanagement of wealth, art, and pottery, as well as other riches. As surrounding kingdoms recognized Ingamu's vulnerability, they launched attacks, scattering its people and ultimately leading to the renaming of Ingamu to Lango, which means "to crossover the enemies' line into a far land." This marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Lango people. The Exodus of the Lango People and Their Diaspora The exodus of the Lango people, led by figures like Lokol, into present-day Kenya marks a crucial turning point in their diaspora. As documented by Merchant (1992), this migration enabled the Lango people to preserve their identity amidst historical upheaval. The diverse names and locations stemming from Lokol's journey have significantly influenced the geography of present-day Kenya. Names such as Kalokol, meaning "the home of Lokol," Naikuru, translating to "full of maggots," Nairobi, known as "the cold one," and Lodwa, meaning "bitter" or "forbidden," embody the Lango route and its rich cultural heritage. These names serve as a reminder of the historical events that have shaped the Lango people's lives. The migratory patterns of the Lango people, as illustrated by Lokol's journey, highlight their survival and adaptability, while also emphasizing the intricate relationship between culture and land. Place names transcend their geographical significance to tell stories of ancestry, struggle, and resilience. They have become an integral part of the Lango people's oral history, passing down stories and legends through generations. The Significance of Oral Traditions in Preserving Cultural Heritage The story of the Ingamu Kingdom exemplifies human creativity, adaptation, and the lasting impact of ancestral teachings. The importance of oral traditions in preserving cultural heritage is evident in the way the Lango people's history has been passed down through generations. As scholars explore the significance of oral traditions, the Ingamu Kingdom's legacy serves as a prime example of how these stories shape a community's identity and worldview. The legends and stories passed down through generations not only help preserve the Lango people's cultural heritage but also foster a sense of continuity and connection to their ancestral roots. The rich history and cultural significance of the Ingamu Kingdom illustrate the importance of oral traditions in shaping a community's identity and informing their understanding of the world. In conclusion, the Ingamu Empire's history and cultural significance offer valuable insights into the complexities of human societies and the importance of preserving cultural heritage. The story of the Lango people's diaspora, as exemplified by Lokol's journey, highlights their resilience and adaptability, while the significance of oral traditions underscores the importance of preserving the cultural heritage of communities like the Lango people.

CHAPTER FIVE Archaeological Evidence

The ancestral territories of the Lango people, a prominent ethnic group in South Sudan, have a rich and storied history that spans across the eastern African region. Archaeological evidences provide valuable insights into the lives of the first ancestors and the ancient kingdoms of Ingamu, with Lohidong the founding father of the Lango people.

In Sudan, archaeological sites such as the Kingdom of Kush and the Pyramids of Meroe have uncovered evidence of ancient civilizations that flourished along the Nile River. The Lango people have a strong cultural and historical connection to the Nilotic communities of Sudan especially Nuba tribes of Toro, and it is believed that their ancestors migrated from this region to their current territories in South Sudan.

In Egypt, the ancient Egyptian records and artifacts have shed light on the interactions and trade between the Egyptians and the early inhabitants of the Lango region. The Egyptians were known to have established trade routes and diplomatic relations with the kingdoms of Nubia (Ingamu), which included the territories of present-day northern Uganda and southern Sudan.

Ethiopia and Eritrea, with their rich cultural heritage and ancient histories, have also provided significant archaeological evidence related to the Lango people. The Kingdom of D'mt, which flourished in the region from the 10th to the 5th centuries BCE, is believed to have had connections with the early Lango ancestors. The ancient city of Axum, with its impressive stone obelisks and temples, is another significant archaeological site that has shed light on the history of the region.

In Somalia and Kenya, archaeological sites such as the ancient port city of Mogadishu and the Lamu Archipelago have uncovered evidence of ancient trade networks and cultural exchange between the coastal communities and the inland kingdoms of the Lango region. The Lango people have a long history of interaction with the coastal communities of East Africa, and it is believed that they played a significant role in the trade and cultural exchange between the interior and the coast.

In Uganda, the archaeological site of Bigo Bya Mugenyi, located in the western part of the country, has provided significant evidence of ancient settlement and cultural practices of the Lango people. The site, which dates back to the 14th century CE, features a complex system of earthworks and trenches that were used for defensive and agricultural purposes.

In South Sudan, the archaeological sites of Itohom Rock shelter of the Kingdom of Ingamu, located on the east bank of the White Nile, has shed light on the history of the Lango people, who are the great great descendants of Lohidong. Secondly, the Lokabulo excavation in Kapoeta traces the routes through which the Lango people of Ingamu Kingdom migrated from Kenya into South Sudan through Lotukei Hills near with the border of Kapoeta where Lokabulo site is Located. The site features a number of ancient temples, tombs, and palaces that date back to the 15th century CE.

In Uganda, the archaeological sites of the ancient kingdoms of Buganda and Bunyoro have provided significant evidence of the cultural and historical connections between the Lango people and their neighboring kingdoms. The Lango people have a long history of interaction with the Baganda and the Banyoro, and it is believed that they played a significant role in the formation of these kingdoms.

The ancient kingdoms of Ingamu and Lohidong as the founding father of the Lango people, are believed to have flourished in the region from the 4025th to the 19th centuries CE. Lohidong is said to have to have migrated from the Sudanese-Egyptian region and went to Ethiopia when the Lower Ingamu was taken over by other Kingdoms.

His descendants continued migrating from Ethiopia through Kenya into South Sudan’s Lotukei Hills before finally settling in Ikwoto County spreading in all areas including Igeria where Itohom Rock shelter is located, Ikwoto where Lohidong Tolia cultural site is located, Kiddepo where the route of their migration points through. Today, the Kingdom has shifted to Lobwaye where Netirang a kind of power is still being observed.

The kingdom of Ingamu was known for its advanced agricultural practices, complex system of governance, and rich cultural heritage. Archaeological evidence found in the Lango region, including pottery, ironworking, and other artifacts, has shed light on the daily lives of the Lango ancestors and their cultural practices. The Lango people have a rich tradition of storytelling, music, and dance, which has been passed down from generation to generation. Their traditional crafts, such as basketry, woodcarving, and ironworking, are highly valued and continue to play an important role in their cultural identity.

CHAPTER SIX Cultural Practices and Society

It is likely that Ingamu had a complex societal structure governed by a hierarchy of chieftains or kings who held significant power and influence over the affairs of the kingdom. This system would have been essential for maintaining social order, organizing communal activities, and making crucial decisions on trade, warfare, and diplomacy.

Oral traditions passed down among modern tribes in Kenya, such as the Kalenjin, and in Ethiopia often reference various rites of passage and communal gatherings linked to this ancient kingdom. These traditions, preserved over generations, provide valuable insights into the cultural practices, customs, and values of the Ingamu people. They may describe elaborate ceremonies marking significant life events like birth, coming of age, marriage, and death, as well as communal celebrations for harvests, honoring ancestors, or seeking divine intervention.

According to Mugisha (2017), these oral traditions demonstrate the enduring legacy of Ingamu and its continued relevance in the cultural heritage of the region. By studying these traditions, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the kingdom's social structures, spiritual beliefs, and cultural practices, which in turn illuminate the lives and experiences of the people who inhabited Ingamu.

Moreover, the existence of these oral traditions emphasizes the importance of preserving cultural heritage and fostering cross-cultural understanding. They serve as a vital link between the past and the present, connecting different communities and societies through shared narratives and values.

CHAPTER SEVEN The Ingamu Economy

The economy of Ingamu is a captivating and intricate system that has long intrigued scholars and professionals due to its unique blend of agricultural and trade-based practices. Located where the fertile waters of the Nile converge, the Ingamu economy likely thrived on a profound understanding of sustainable farming techniques that maximized land productivity while ensuring a stable food supply.

This sophisticated agricultural approach not only showcased the Ingamu people's resourcefulness but also fostered a robust and diverse economy characterized by complexity and interconnectedness. The strategic location of Ingamu at the crossroads of major trade routes connecting the Mediterranean to sub-Saharan Africa significantly shaped its economy, facilitating the exchange of valuable goods such as ivory and textiles. Prominent researchers, including Khan (2018), have highlighted how these trade routes acted as vital conduits for commodities, stimulating economic growth and cultural exchange between Ingamu and neighboring regions.

The interplay of agricultural expertise, trade networks, and geographical advantages played a pivotal role in developing a thriving economy, marked by a distinctive blend of tradition and innovation. To appreciate the nuances of the Ingamu economy fully, it's essential to examine its historical context, including the social, cultural, and environmental factors influencing its growth and development. By adopting an objective perspective, free from preconceptions or biases, researchers can delve deeper into the underlying mechanisms that drove the Ingamu economy, illuminating the complexities of this ancient system.

Studying the Ingamu economy offers valuable insights into the evolution of economic systems, underscoring the importance of adaptability, innovation, and strategic planning in navigating global trade and commerce. Furthermore, the economy's focus on sustainability and regional cooperation serves as a compelling model for contemporary economic development, emphasizing the need for a balanced approach prioritizing both economic growth and environmental stewardship.

As we explore the specifics of the Ingamu economy, it becomes clear that this ancient system has much to teach us about the principles of sustainable economic development, the advantages of regional trade cooperation, and the enduring legacy of cultural exchange. By investigating the historical antecedents and contextual factors that shaped the Ingamu economy, we gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between economic, social, and environmental dynamics that still influence the modern global economy.

Ultimately, a detailed examination of the Ingamu economy provides a valuable case study, offering professionals and scholars insights into the dynamics of an ancient economic system and lessons applicable to contemporary economic development while highlighting the importance of preserving cultural heritage and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Additionally, the Ingamu economy's experience can inform policy decisions and business strategies, offering a unique perspective on the challenges and opportunities within a globalized economy. A thorough analysis of the Ingamu economy allows researchers to pinpoint key factors that contributed to its success, such as the development of specialized industries, the creation of trade networks, and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices. These insights can be applied to contemporary economic challenges, enhancing our understanding of the complexities involved in economic development and the necessity of adopting a nuanced, multifaceted approach to growth and sustainability.

Furthermore, the distinctive blend of tradition and innovation within the Ingamu economy can serve as a model for modern economies aiming to balance economic growth with social and environmental responsibility. This underscores the importance of a holistic approach to economic development that considers the intricate relationships between economic, social, and environmental factors. The study of the Ingamu economy can also provide valuable insights into the roles of institutions, governance, and policy in shaping economic outcomes, as well as the significance of effective leadership and management in fostering economic growth and development.

In this regard, the Ingamu economy presents a rich and captivating case study that can deepen our understanding of economic development, sustainability, and cultural exchange while offering a unique perspective on the complexities and challenges of building a thriving economy in a rapidly changing world. Its legacy continues to resonate today, serving as a powerful reminder of the importance of adaptability, resilience, and strategic planning in navigating the intricacies of global trade and commerce. By examining the historical context and evolution of the Ingamu economy, we can gain valuable insights into the factors that contributed to its achievements. These lessons can inform policy decisions and business strategies that prioritize sustainability, regional cooperation, and cultural exchange.

The significance of the Ingamu economy extends beyond its historical context, providing a distinctive lens through which to view the challenges and opportunities of developing a successful economy in today’s rapidly evolving landscape. As we continue to engage with the complexities of global trade and commerce, the Ingamu economy's emphasis on sustainability, regional cooperation, and cultural exchange presents a compelling model for contemporary economic development, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach that prioritizes both economic growth and environmental stewardship (Khan, 2018).

CHAPTER EIGHT Relations with Neighboring Kingdoms

Ingamu existed in a dynamic landscape shaped by powerful neighboring kingdoms, where relations, particularly with the Kemet Kingdom, were likely complex and multifaceted, involving both trade and conflict. The rising power of Axum during the first few centuries CE presented a considerable threat to Ingamu, contributing to its decline. The historical context of the Ingamu Kingdom is characterized by a delicate interplay of power dynamics with surrounding kingdoms, significantly influencing its trajectory. Situated amidst various powerful neighbors, each with distinct cultures, economies, and political agendas, Ingamu's development and decline were deeply affected.

The Kemet Kingdom plays a pivotal role in this narrative, with interactions between the two likely reflecting a mix of cooperation and confrontation. As noted by Berhane in 2020, these interactions involved trade and tensions, underscoring how the relationship's volatility had far-reaching implications for Ingamu's economic, social, and cultural evolution. Additionally, the emergence of Axum as a dominant regional power introduced new challenges for Ingamu’s stability and security, leading to increased competition and rising tensions that would ultimately contribute to the kingdom's decline. The intricate web of relationships between Ingamu and neighboring kingdoms, especially Kemet and Axum, is vital for understanding the historical experiences and challenges faced by this ancient kingdom.

This chapter aims to provide an in-depth examination of Ingamu's relations with its neighbors, exploring the various factors influencing these interactions and their impacts on the kingdom's development and decline. By adopting a neutral perspective supported by historical evidence and scholarly research, this analysis seeks to enhance our understanding of the context in which Ingamu existed, demonstrating how its relations with neighboring kingdoms shaped its destiny. Investigating Ingamu's diplomatic and confrontational experiences serves as a valuable lesson for professionals and scholars aiming to comprehend the intricacies of international relations, diplomacy, and conflict resolution in historical contexts, thus presenting a compelling and relevant area of inquiry.

The experiences of Ingamu highlight the significance of regional politics and diplomacy, drawing attention to the complex interactions between states and societies. The historical context of Ingamu’s relationships with its neighbors is rich and intricate, providing substantial opportunities for insights into power dynamics, cultural exchange, and conflict within ancient societies. With its complex relationships and shifting power dynamics, the history of Ingamu's interactions with neighboring kingdoms deserves careful examination. Ultimately, this analysis will emphasize the importance of considering the broader regional dynamics and power structures surrounding Ingamu to truly appreciate the complexity and richness of its history.

By exploring these relationships, the chapter aims to offer a nuanced understanding of the kingdom's experiences and illuminate the broader implications of its history for our grasp of international relations, diplomacy, and conflict resolution in ancient contexts. The study of Ingamu's interactions with its neighbors presents a fascinating topic that provides insights into power dynamics, cultural exchange, and ancient conflicts. Such analysis will contribute to a deeper understanding of historical events and yield valuable lessons for scholars and professionals engaged in the study of ancient societies and international relations. Overall, the historical context of Ingamu's relationships with its neighboring kingdoms is a compelling and significant area of study, shedding light on the complexities of ancient societies' power dynamics and cultural interactions (Berhane, 2020).

CHAPTER NINE The Decline of Ingamu

The decline of Ingamu was a complex and multifaceted process that unfolded over an extended period, marked by a gradual erosion of its territorial integrity and the eventual dissolution of its cultural identity. This decline was largely precipitated by the expansionist policies of the neighboring kingdom of Axum, which sought to extend its dominion over the surrounding regions through a combination of military conquest, strategic alliances, and cultural assimilation. The kingdom of Axum, with its strong military presence and well-organized administrative system, posed a significant threat to the sovereignty of Ingamu, as it actively sought to incorporate the region into its own territorial boundaries. Axum's military campaigns, which were characterized by their tactical prowess and logistical efficiency, allowed the kingdom to expand its territorial control, while its administrative system, which was marked by its bureaucratic complexity and organizational sophistication, enabled it to govern its newly acquired territories with a high degree of effectiveness.

However, the influence of Axum was not the sole factor contributing to the decline of Ingamu, as the kingdom also faced significant pressure from other neighboring kingdoms, such as Kush, which had its own ambitions of expansion and territorial aggrandizement. Kush, with its rich cultural heritage and extensive trade networks, presented a formidable challenge to Ingamu's economic and cultural stability, as it competed with Ingamu for resources, markets, and strategic alliances. The kingdom of Kush, which was known for its architectural achievements, literary traditions, and artistic innovations, exerted a profound influence on the cultural landscape of the region, and its expansionist policies posed a significant threat to Ingamu's sovereignty. Furthermore, the kingdom of Ingamu was also exposed to the influences of other cultures, including the Galla, a nomadic people with their own distinct traditions and customs, who interacted with Ingamu through a combination of trade, migration, and conflict. The Galla, who were skilled pastoralists and warriors, brought with them their own unique cultural practices, such as their tradition of cattle herding and their expertise in horse breeding, which had a profound impact on the cultural and economic landscape of Ingamu.

The cumulative effect of these external pressures, combined with internal weaknesses and divisions within Ingamu, ultimately contributed to the kingdom's decline. As Ingamu's territorial integrity was gradually eroded, its cultural identity began to dissolve, as the kingdom's institutions, traditions, and values were increasingly influenced by the dominant cultures of its neighbors. The loss of autonomy and self-governance, coupled with the erosion of its cultural distinctiveness, marked the beginning of the end of Ingamu as a sovereign entity, as it became increasingly assimilated into the broader cultural and political landscape of the region. The decline of Ingamu was also marked by a decline in its economic fortunes, as the kingdom's trade networks and markets were disrupted by the expansionist policies of its neighbors. The kingdom's agricultural production, which was once the backbone of its economy, began to decline, as the land was increasingly used for pastoralism and other non-agricultural purposes.

The decline of Ingamu also had significant implications for the region as a whole, as the power vacuum created by its dissolution was filled by other kingdoms and cultures, leading to a reconfiguration of the regional balance of power. The expansion of Axum, in particular, had far-reaching consequences, as it led to the spread of its culture, language, and institutions throughout the region, shaping the course of history for centuries to come. The kingdom of Axum, which became the dominant power in the region, imposed its own system of governance, which was characterized by its bureaucratic complexity and administrative efficiency, on the newly acquired territories. The spread of Axum's culture and language also had a profound impact on the cultural landscape of the region, as it led to the development of a common cultural identity and a shared sense of purpose among the people of the region.

Meanwhile, the legacy of Ingamu, though diminished, continued to exert an influence on the region, as its cultural traditions and historical experiences were absorbed and transformed by the succeeding kingdoms and cultures that rose to prominence in the region. The cultural heritage of Ingamu, which was marked by its unique blend of traditional and modern practices, continued to inspire and influence the artistic, literary, and architectural achievements of the region. The historical experiences of Ingamu, which were characterized by its struggles for sovereignty and self-governance, also continued to shape the political and social landscape of the region, as the people of the region sought to learn from the mistakes of the past and build a better future for themselves. The decline of Ingamu, therefore, marked not only the end of a kingdom, but also the beginning of a new era of cultural, economic, and political transformation in the region, as the people of the region sought to create a new future for themselves, built on the foundations of their shared history and cultural heritage.

In the aftermath of Ingamu's decline, the region underwent a period of significant transformation, as new kingdoms and cultures emerged to fill the power vacuum created by its dissolution. The kingdom of Axum, which had been the primary beneficiary of Ingamu's decline, continued to expand its territorial control, imposing its own system of governance and cultural practices on the newly acquired territories. The spread of Axum's culture and language had a profound impact on the cultural landscape of the region, as it led to the development of a common cultural identity and a shared sense of purpose among the people of the region. However, the legacy of Ingamu continued to exert an influence on the region, as its cultural traditions and historical experiences were absorbed and transformed by the succeeding kingdoms and cultures that rose to prominence in the region.

The historical significance of Ingamu's decline, therefore, extends far beyond the boundaries of the kingdom itself, as it had a profound impact on the cultural, economic, and political landscape of the region. The decline of Ingamu marked the beginning of a new era of cultural, economic, and political transformation in the region, as the people of the region sought to create a new future for themselves, built on the foundations of their shared history and cultural heritage. The legacy of Ingamu, though diminished, continues to inspire and influence the artistic, literary, and architectural achievements of the region, as the people of the region seek to learn from the mistakes of the past and build a better future for themselves. As such, the decline of Ingamu remains an important chapter in the history of the region, as it marked the end of a kingdom and the beginning of a new era of transformation and growth.

CHAPTER TEN The Fragmentation of Ingamu

As the centuries unfolded, the territorial boundaries of Ingamu, a once-great kingdom, underwent a significant transformation, becoming increasingly fragmented. The kingdom's population, which was previously united under the wise and just rule of a single monarch, began to disperse and assimilate into the emerging kingdoms that surrounded it. This process of fragmentation was accelerated by a multitude of factors, including the constant threat of invasion, the allure of new economic opportunities in neighboring territories, and the gradual erosion of Ingamu's traditional institutions and customs.

The repeated invasions and raids by neighboring kingdoms had a profound impact on Ingamu's stability, leading to a decline in its economic and military prowess. As a result, many of its citizens sought better fortunes in other lands, leading to a brain drain and a loss of skilled labor. Furthermore, the emergence of new trade routes and economic centers in neighboring territories drew many of Ingamu's merchants and traders away, further contributing to the kingdom's decline. The influx of new ideas, cultures, and values also led to a gradual erosion of Ingamu's traditional way of life, as its people began to adopt the customs and practices of their neighbors.

The gradual erosion of Ingamu's traditional institutions and customs also played a significant role in its fragmentation. As the kingdom's leadership struggled to maintain power and control, the traditional practices and customs that had held the society together for generations began to break down. The once-strong sense of community and shared identity that had defined the Lango people, the inhabitants of Ingamu, began to fray, leading to a loss of cohesion and a sense of purpose. The Lango people, who had once been proud of their distinct heritage and cultural traditions, began to lose their sense of self and their connection to their ancestral roots.

By the 4th century CE, the process of fragmentation had reached a critical point, and Ingamu's identity had been significantly diluted. Its people, the Lango, were now largely absorbed into the cultural and political spheres of their neighboring kingdoms. This loss of autonomy and unique identity had a profound impact on the Lango people, leading to a decline in their sense of self-worth and a disconnection from their ancestral roots. The Lango people, who had once been a proud and unified nation, were now scattered and disjointed, struggling to maintain their cultural heritage in the face of overwhelming external pressures.

However, the story of the Lango people does not end there. According to tradition, a legendary leader named Lokol forged a new path for his people, leading them through the wilderness into a virgin and uninhabited land that he named Kalokol. This brave and visionary leader also named many other places in what is now Kenya, leaving an indelible mark on the region's geography and history. Lokol's leadership and vision had a profound impact on the Lango people, giving them a new sense of purpose and direction in the face of adversity.

The Lango people are believed to have been the first to set foot on the present Kenyan soil, approximately 3.3 million years ago. Their legacy can still be seen in the many place names that Lokol and his people bestowed upon the land. The tradition also has it that Lokol had settled at Kalokol when the second wave of migrating Lango people found his food left on a drying rag. The hungry immigrants started to eat the leftover, prompting Lokol to shout to the visitors, "Kenya na irobi," which translates to "you don't eat the cold one." This phrase would later become the names of the country and its capital, a testament to the enduring legacy of the Lango people.

Tragically, Lokol's life was cut short when he died at a place called Lomekwee, which translates to "headache." He was buried there, surrounded by stones, a fitting tribute to a great leader. The death of Lokol marked the beginning of the end of the Lango people's unity, as his successor, Lokuk, a skilled warrior, was killed in a war with the Luo. The Luo, a name that was once synonymous with fear and dread, was actually the name of a man from the Acholi tribe who had killed Lokuk by stabbing him in the back. The people's perception of the Luo changed after this event, and the name became a symbol of strength and bravery.

The separation of the Lango and Luo people from Ingamu, the ancient kingdom that was once ruled by a single king and queen, marked the end of an era. The fragmentation of Ingamu had far-reaching consequences, leading to the loss of a unique cultural identity and autonomy. However, the legacy of the Lango people lives on, a testament to the enduring power of tradition, culture, and leadership. The story of Lokol and his people serves as a reminder of the importance of preserving our cultural heritage and the need to learn from the triumphs and tragedies of our ancestors.

The history of the Lango people is a complex and multifaceted one, full of twists and turns that have shaped the course of their journey. From the heights of greatness to the depths of decline, the Lango people have faced numerous challenges and overcome incredible obstacles. Their story is a testament to the resilience and determination of the human spirit, and a reminder that even in the darkest of times, there is always hope for a brighter future.

CHAPTER ELEVEN The Exodus and the Loss of Identity

The Ingamu people, a community with a rich history and cultural heritage, were forced to flee their ancestral lands due to relentless persecution and violence. This mass migration, driven by a desperate need for survival, resulted in a profound loss that extended far beyond the boundaries of their homeland. The trauma of displacement had a devastating impact on the Ingamu people, leading to the erasure of their kingdom's name, a cultural treasure that had been passed down through generations.

For centuries, the Ingamu people had proudly identified themselves with their ancestral homeland, where their ancestors had lived, farmed, and thrived. The kingdom of Ingamu was a beacon of culture, tradition, and identity, with its own distinct customs, languages, and practices. However, the relentless pursuit of their enemies made it impossible for them to remain in their ancestral lands, forcing them to make the painful decision to abandon their homes and seek refuge in unfamiliar territories.

In a desperate bid to shield themselves from further harm, the Ingamu people made the painful decision to rename their community "Lango." This deliberate attempt to conceal their origins and heritage was a strategic move aimed at protecting themselves from further persecution, but it also marked a poignant and irreversible turning point in the history of Ingamu. The adoption of a new name was a drastic measure, one that would erase their former identity and sever their ties with their ancestral homeland.

The Ingamu people knew that by abandoning their name, they would be sacrificing a part of themselves, a part that had defined them for generations. As they ventured into the uncharted territories of the border regions with Kenya, they effectively shed their former identity, leaving behind the familiar landscapes, customs, and traditions that had defined them for centuries. The adoption of a new name, "Lango," signified a radical break with their past, as they struggled to come to terms with the loss of their ancestral homeland and the dissolution of their distinct cultural and political entity.

The landscape of their new surroundings was unfamiliar, with different climates, flora, and fauna. The people they encountered spoke different languages, practiced different customs, and had different traditions. The Ingamu people, now known as the Lango, had to adapt to these new circumstances, learning to navigate the complexities of their new environment and to forge new relationships with the people they encountered.

This exodus, marked by the abandonment of their ancestral name and the embracing of a new identity, signaled the effective end of the kingdom as a recognizable and cohesive unit. The Ingamu people were forced to navigate an uncertain future, rebuilding their lives in a foreign and often hostile environment. The kingdom of Ingamu, with its rich history and cultural heritage, was no more. The people who had once called themselves Ingamu were now scattered, dispersed across the border regions with Kenya, struggling to survive and to make sense of their new circumstances.

The loss of their ancestral homeland and the erasure of their cultural identity had left a deep scar, one that would take generations to heal. The consequences of this mass migration and the subsequent loss of identity were far-reaching and profound. The Ingamu people, now known as the Lango, faced the daunting task of reconstructing their community, forging new alliances, and adapting to unfamiliar customs and traditions.

They had to learn to navigate the complexities of their new environment, to find new ways of making a living, and to build new relationships with the people they encountered. The ache of displacement and the erasure of their cultural heritage continued to linger, a poignant reminder of the traumatic events that had led to their exile. The memories of their ancestral homeland, of their former lives and traditions, continued to haunt them, a bittersweet reminder of what they had lost.

As they settled into their new surroundings, the Lango people had to confront the challenges of preserving their cultural memory, passing down their stories and traditions to future generations, and finding ways to reconnect with their ancestral roots. They had to find ways to keep their cultural heritage alive, to pass down their stories, traditions, and customs to their children and grandchildren, despite the fact that they were no longer living in their ancestral homeland.

This was a daunting task, one that required great effort and determination. The Lango people had to be creative, finding new ways to express their cultural identity, to celebrate their traditions, and to honor their ancestors. They had to navigate the complexities of their new identity, balancing their desire to hold on to their cultural heritage with the need to adapt to their new circumstances.

The exodus of the Ingamu people into the border regions with Kenya thus marked a watershed moment in their history, one that would forever alter the trajectory of their community and leave an indelible imprint on their collective identity. The migration had been a traumatic event, one that had caused immense suffering and displacement. However, it had also brought about a new era of resilience and adaptation, as the Ingamu people, now known as the Lango, struggled to rebuild their lives and to forge a new future.

The story of the Ingamu people, their migration, and their subsequent loss of identity, serves as a powerful reminder of the human cost of conflict, persecution, and displacement, and the enduring power of cultural heritage and tradition to shape our sense of self and our place in the world. Despite the challenges they faced, the Lango people continued to hold on to their cultural heritage, to their traditions, and to their stories, even as they adapted to their new circumstances and forged a new identity.

Their story is a testament to the human spirit, to the ability of people to survive, to adapt, and to thrive, even in the face of adversity. The Ingamu people's experience is a reminder that cultural heritage and identity are not fixed or static, but rather dynamic and evolving. It is a reminder that even in the face of trauma and displacement, people can find ways to preserve their cultural memory and to pass it down to future generations.

The story of the Ingamu people also highlights the importance of preserving cultural heritage and tradition, not just for the sake of preserving the past, but also for the sake of building a strong and resilient future. It is a reminder that cultural heritage and identity are essential components of a community's sense of self and place in the world, and that they play a critical role in shaping our values, beliefs, and practices.

In the end, the Ingamu people's story is one of hope and resilience, a testament to the human spirit's ability to overcome even the most daunting challenges. Despite the trauma and displacement they experienced, the Lango people were able to rebuild their lives, to forge a new future, and to preserve their cultural heritage. Their story serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of cultural heritage and tradition, and the need to preserve and protect them for future generations.

CHAPTER TWELVE Historical Research on the Decline of Ingamu

The decline of Ingamu, a once thriving kingdom, has been the subject of extensive historical research. One such study, conducted by Tshibangu in 2021, shed light on the pivotal factors that contributed to the demise of Ingamu's identity. According to Tshibangu, the absorption of Ingamu's population into emerging kingdoms such as Axum and Kush in the 4th Century CE was a crucial factor in the decline of Ingamu. As the kingdom's population was dispersed and integrated into these new kingdoms, the cultural and linguistic traditions that had once defined Ingamu began to fade.

The kingdom's institutions, customs, and practices, which had been carefully preserved and passed down through generations, were gradually replaced by those of the dominant neighboring cultures. This assimilation led to a profound loss of cultural heritage and historical memory, making it challenging for later generations to reclaim and understand their Ingamu roots. Tshibangu's research highlights the complex interplay of factors that contributed to the decline of Ingamu, including the aggressive expansion of neighboring kingdoms, the allure of new economic and cultural opportunities, and the internal weaknesses and divisions within Ingamu itself.

The study underscores the importance of understanding the historical context and the multifaceted nature of cultural decline, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of cultural identity, political power, and the resilience of traditional societies in the face of external pressures and internal challenges. The decline of Ingamu serves as a prime example of how the complex interplay of historical factors can lead to the erosion of cultural identity and the loss of traditional practices.

In another historical account, provided by J.P. Crazzolara in 1954, a significant event occurred in the region involving the invasion of the Didinga people by the Lango. This invasion was precipitated by the collapse of the Lango kingdom, which led to the migration of the Lango people in search of new territories to settle. Upon their arrival in the area, the Lango encountered the indigenous populations of the Didinga, Marile, Murle, and Tenet, who had traditionally inhabited the hills of Lotukei.

The Lango, driven by the need for new lands and resources following the collapse of their kingdom, initiated a process of displacement against these native groups. This displacement had profound effects on the social, cultural, and economic structures of the affected communities. The Didinga, Marile, Murle, and Tenet, who had previously enjoyed relative stability and control over their territories, were forced to relocate or adapt to a new political and demographic reality imposed by the invading Lango.

The invasion and subsequent displacement signify a pivotal moment in the history of the region, marking the beginning of a new era characterized by conflict, cultural exchange, and the reshaping of territorial boundaries. The event underscores the complex and often tumultuous nature of ethnic relations and territorial disputes in the area, highlighting the historical contexts that have contributed to the contemporary socio-political landscape of the region. Furthermore, this historical event is emblematic of broader patterns of migration, conquest, and displacement that have occurred throughout history, not only in this specific region but also globally. The dynamic of powerful groups expanding their territories at the expense of less powerful or more vulnerable populations is a recurring theme, with far-reaching consequences for the cultural identity, political stability, and economic development of the affected areas.

P.Crazzolara's description of the Lango invasion of Didinga and the displacement of the Didinga, Marile, Murle, and Tenet from the Lotukei hills offers a glimpse into the complex historical processes that have shaped the demographics and political configurations of the region. This event, while specific to a particular time and place, reflects universal themes of migration, conflict, and the struggle for territorial control that continue to influence the world today.

In addition, the Lango invasion had a lasting impact on the cultural heritage of the Didinga people. The names Lokang and Nakang, which were given to the daughters of Ibangahideng and Lohidong at the first interaction of myth and humans, were also left on the Didinga people and are still being used today. This cultural exchange and the adoption of Lango names by the Didinga people demonstrate the complex and multifaceted nature of cultural identity and the ways in which different groups have interacted and influenced one another throughout history.

The historical research on the decline of Ingamu and the Lango invasion of Didinga highlights the importance of understanding the complex historical contexts that have shaped the contemporary world. By examining the dynamics of cultural identity, political power, and the resilience of traditional societies, we can gain a deeper understanding of the factors that have contributed to the decline of Ingamu and the displacement of the Didinga people. This knowledge can inform our approach to addressing the challenges faced by marginalized communities and promoting cultural preservation and exchange in the modern world.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN Legacy and Influence

Though lost to the sands of time, its legacy reverberates through the ages, offering a captivating glimpse into the lives of early African civilizations and their intricate connections. Through a combination of archaeological findings, oral histories, and cultural studies, researchers have pieced together a narrative highlighting Ingamu's significance within the broader African historical context.

At its core, the Ingamu Kingdom exemplifies the complex trade networks, cultural exchanges, and enduring heritage that thrived across Africa long before modern times. The kingdom's existence poignantly reminds us of the sophistication and interconnectedness of ancient African societies, characterized by a deep understanding of their environments, innovative agricultural practices, and a rich cultural tapestry. By examining Ingamu's remnants, scholars gain valuable insights into the daily lives of its people, their governance systems, and contributions to the broader African context.

Recent discoveries in the Nile Valley and the Great Rift region have shed new light on the Ingamu Kingdom, illuminating the intricacies of daily life and governance. Archaeological evidence reveals a complex society deeply engaged with its surroundings, harnessing natural resources to develop a thriving agricultural sector. The people of Ingamu were skilled craftsmen, producing goods used locally and traded extensively across the region. These findings, coupled with ongoing oral traditions, underscore Ingamu's significant role in shaping Africa's cultural, social, and economic landscape during its time.

One of the most striking aspects of the Ingamu Kingdom is its lasting influence on contemporary societies. Despite being lost to history, the kingdom's legacy continues to be felt through stories and traditions persisting in modern folklore. These narratives, passed down through generations, serve as a powerful testament to the enduring connection between the past and the present. They highlight a shared history and an evolving cultural identity that continues to shape the lives of people across the continent. By examining Ingamu's legacy, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of how ancient societies have contributed to the complexities of modern African identity.

The stories passed down through oral tradition offer a unique window into the culture and values of the Ingamu people. Rich in symbolism and metaphor, these narratives provide insights into the social organization and worldview of the kingdom's inhabitants. They reveal a society deeply attuned to its natural surroundings, with a profound respect for the land and ancestors. At the same time, these stories underscore the creativity and resilience of the Ingamu people, who adapted to changing circumstances while maintaining a strong cultural identity.

Understanding the history of the Ingamu Kingdom is not merely an academic exercise; it is a celebration of Africa's rich narrative tapestry. By exploring this forgotten kingdom's legacy, researchers gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity and diversity characterizing the African continent. The story of Ingamu serves as a powerful reminder of the many untold stories waiting to be uncovered, each offering a unique perspective on African societies' experiences and achievements throughout history.

Moreover, studying the Ingamu Kingdom and other ancient African civilizations helps challenge prevailing narratives that have often marginalized or overlooked African cultures' contributions to global heritage. By highlighting the achievements and innovations of the Ingamu people, researchers promote a more nuanced understanding of African history, recognizing African societies' agency and creativity. This, in turn, contributes to a more inclusive and equitable understanding of the global past, acknowledging the diverse experiences and perspectives that have shaped human history. The significance of the Ingamu Kingdom extends beyond academic inquiry, speaking to a broader desire to connect with the past and understand the complexities of cultural identity. As researchers continue to uncover the secrets of this forgotten kingdom, they shed new light on a neglected chapter in African history and highlight the enduring relevance of Ingamu's legacy. The stories, traditions, and cultural practices passed down through the ages serve as a powerful reminder of the connection between past and present, underscoring the importance of preserving and celebrating Africa's rich cultural heritage.

In conclusion, the Ingamu Kingdom stands as a powerful testament to Africa's rich cultural heritage, offering a fascinating glimpse into the lives of early African civilizations. Through a combination of archaeological findings, oral histories, and cultural studies, researchers have pieced together a narrative highlighting Ingamu's significance within the broader African historical context. As we continue to uncover the secrets of this forgotten kingdom, we not only shed new light on a neglected chapter in African history but also celebrate the complexity and diversity that characterizes the African continent. The story of Ingamu serves as a powerful reminder of the many untold stories waiting to be uncovered, each offering a unique perspective on African societies' experiences and achievements throughout history.

Conclusion In conclusion, the rich cultural heritage and history of the Lango people, and the broader region of South Sudan, stand as testament to the enduring power and vital importance of oral tradition and cultural practices in preserving the past. The songs, stories, rituals, and traditions that have been meticulously passed down through generations offer a unique and invaluable window into the history and cultural identity of the region.

This exploration underscores the crucial link between the cultural identity of the Lango people and their oral tradition, emphasizing that the preservation of their cultural heritage is not merely a historical exercise but an essential component of understanding their present-day identity and cultural practices. By actively maintaining and revitalizing these traditions, the Lango people ensure that their unique history continues to resonate and shape their future.

The Ingamu Kingdom, although now lost to history, is an important part of Africa’s diverse heritage. Through archaeological evidence, oral histories, and cultural studies, we can gain insights into early African civilizations and their connections. The Ingamu Kingdom highlights the networks of trade, culture, and heritage that existed long before modern times.

Findings from the Nile Valley and Great Rift region shed light on the daily lives and governance of the Ingamu people. These discoveries, along with ongoing oral traditions, reveal their contributions to agriculture, craftsmanship, and social organization within the wider African context. Studies of the Ingamu Kingdom's legacy show its influence on contemporary societies.

The kingdom's stories continue in modern folklore, illustrating a shared history and evolving cultural identity. Understanding this past helps us appreciate the resilience of African cultures through changing times. Overall, exploring the Ingamu Kingdom is not only about a lost civilization but also about celebrating Africa’s rich heritage. It reflects the narratives of many generations and reinforces the connection between past and present. By studying such legacies, we deepen our understanding of the complexity and richness of the African continent.

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Appendix Appendix A: Interview with Abondio, former chief of Lango Appendix B: Interview with Teresa Juju, Lango woman and daughter of King Lolpwanya Appendix C: Interview with Ojok, Abondio's grandson and community member Appendix D: Lango Language Program transcripts Appendix E: Radio program schedule and topics

The dissolution of the Ingamu Kingdom, a once powerful and influential civilization, has not resulted in the complete erasure of its cultural heritage. Despite its decline, the kingdom's cultural legacy continues to persist and thrive within the local traditions, language, and practices of the region. The rich cultural heritage of the Ingamu Kingdom is still evident in the oral traditions of various tribes situated in the Nile Valley and the Great Rift region, where its stories and legends continue to be passed down through generations by word of mouth. These oral traditions, which have been preserved and continue to play a significant role in the cultural identity of the people living in these areas, serve as a testament to the enduring legacy of the Ingamu Kingdom.

The stories, myths, and historical accounts that are shared among the tribes highlight the kingdom's cultural impact, which is still noticeable in the folklore and historical accounts that are shared among the tribes. According to Oladipo (2022), the Ingamu Kingdom's history, although not as widely recognized as other ancient civilizations, has left an indelible mark on the cultural landscape of the region. The ongoing retelling of these stories underscores the significance of the Ingamu Kingdom's contributions to the rich cultural tapestry of the Nile Valley and the Great Rift region. The persistence of the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy can be attributed to the strong oral traditions of the tribes in the region, allowing for the preservation and passing down of the kingdom's stories and history through generations, even in the absence of written records.

These oral traditions have enabled the cultural heritage of the Ingamu Kingdom to evolve and adapt over time, incorporating new influences and experiences while still maintaining its unique character. Moreover, these oral traditions have played a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity of the people living in the region. The stories and legends of the Ingamu Kingdom are used to explain natural phenomena, the creation of the world, and the origins of the people. They also convey moral lessons, cultural values, and provide a sense of continuity and connection to the past. The oral traditions not only preserve the kingdom's history, including its conquests, achievements, and struggles, but continue to be celebrated and commemorated today.

Furthermore, the enduring legacy of the Ingamu Kingdom is reflected in the language and practices of the local population. The kingdom's language, customs, and beliefs have been assimilated into the daily lives of the people, shaping their identity and influencing their interactions with the world around them. The cultural strands of the Ingamu Kingdom have become an integral part of regional identity, influencing how people live, interact, and perceive their place in the world. The kingdom's language, for instance, remains spoken by many in the region, and its customs and beliefs are actively practiced.

In addition, the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy can be observed in the traditional practices and rituals that are still observed by the people in the region. These include agricultural rituals, initiation ceremonies, and funeral rites, which remain key to the cultural heritage of the area. Passed down through generations, these traditions continue to shape the identity of the local people. The traditional arts and crafts of the region, such as textiles, pottery, and woodcarvings, also reflect the influence of the Ingamu Kingdom and are still produced and appreciated today. The significance of the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy extends beyond the region, providing a unique window into the history and culture of the Nile Valley and the Great Rift region. Its cultural heritage is an important part of the region's diversity, and preserving and promoting it is essential for fostering a rich cultural landscape.

According to Oladipo (2022), the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy serves as a valuable resource to promote cultural understanding and appreciation between different communities and nations. The cultural legacy of the Ingamu Kingdom has also profoundly impacted education and cultural awareness in the region. Its stories, legends, and historical accounts educate children and adults alike about the area's rich cultural heritage and the importance of preservation. This legacy encourages respect for the cultural traditions and practices of others, fostering a broader understanding.

The preservation and promotion of the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy are vital for developing a rich cultural landscape, with significance that extends beyond the region, promoting understanding and appreciation across communities and nations. The Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy exemplifies the resilience of cultural heritage, reminding us of the importance of preserving and promoting diversity in all its forms. Its stories, legends, and historical accounts remain a source of inspiration and education, ensuring the kingdom's influence continues to shape the cultural identity of the people in the region for generations to come.

Furthermore, the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the region's history and culture. By studying its heritage, scholars and researchers can gain deeper insights into the area's complex cultural landscape and how different cultures have interacted and influenced one another over time. This understanding can promote greater cultural awareness and appreciation, both within the region and beyond.

Additionally, the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy has the potential to enrich the cultural scene in the area. By promoting and preserving this heritage, artists, musicians, and writers can draw inspiration from the kingdom's rich traditions, creating new works that reflect the area's unique cultural identity. This, in turn, could foster greater cultural exchange and collaboration both locally and internationally. Overall, the Ingamu Kingdom's cultural legacy is a vital part of the region's heritage, essential for developing a rich and vibrant cultural landscape. By protecting and promoting this legacy, we can help ensure that its stories, legends, and historical accounts will continue to inspire and educate people, making its cultural heritage a vibrant and integral part of the region's identity.

Appendix Appendix A: Summary of the research on Lango oral Tradition

Title: The Ancient Roots of South Sudan: Unveiling the History and Etymology of Ingamu

Abstract This paper explores the rich and complex history of a lost Kingdom known as Ingamu. Its people, the Lango are scattered since the fall of the Kingdom centuries ago. South Sudan, a country comprised of ten states, with a particular focus on its ancient roots and the etymology of its name has oral literature which has been passed down to them by the ones who stepped onto the soil before anyone of us. Through a critical analysis of existing literature and primary research conducted between 2008-2025 on Lango oral history, this study challenges prevailing narratives on the naming of Africa and sheds new light on the significance of the name "Ingamu." The research reveals that the ancient name of Africa was, in fact, Ingamu, predating other names such as Kemet, Al-Sudan, AlKebulan, and Abyssinia. This paper argues that the etymology of Ingamu is rooted in a wild root tuber, while "Nubia" is derived from the Arabic term "nub," meaning gold, underscoring the region's historical prosperity.

Introduction South Sudan, a country in northeastern Africa, is home to a diverse population and a rich cultural heritage. The nation's history spans over millennia, with various empires, dynasties, and kingdoms rising and falling over time. The ancient civilizations that once flourished in this region were renowned for their impressive gold reserves, architectural achievements, and cultural accomplishments. Despite the significance of these ancient societies, the naming of Africa and the etymology of its ancient names remain a topic of debate among scholars. This thesis seeks to contribute to this discussion by examining the history and etymology of the name "Ingamu," a term that predates other names associated with the continent.

Literature Review The existing literature on the history of South Sudan and the naming of Africa is extensive, yet often fragmented and contested. Many scholars have explored the history of the region, highlighting the significance of ancient empires such as Nubia and Kemet (O'Connor, 1993; Shinnie, 1996). However, the etymology of the names associated with Africa remains a subject of debate. Some scholars argue that the name "Kemet" was used to describe Africa as the "land of the black people" (Diop, 1974), while others contend that "Nubia" is derived from the Arabic term "nub," meaning gold (Hasan, 1967).

Recent research on Lango oral history, conducted between 2008-2025, has shed new light on the ancient name "Ingamu." According to the oral traditions of the Lango people, "Ingamu" was the original name of Africa, predating other names such as Kemet, Al-Sudan, AlKebulan, and Abyssinia (see Table 1). The etymology of "Ingamu" is attributed to a wild root tuber, which was considered a staple food in the region.

Methodology This study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining a critical analysis of existing literature with primary research on Lango oral history. The primary research was conducted between 2008-2025, involving in-depth interviews with Lango elders and the collection of oral traditions. The data collected was analyzed using a thematic approach, with a focus on the etymology of the name "Ingamu" and its significance in the context of South Sudan's history.

Findings The research revealed that the name "Ingamu" is deeply rooted in the oral traditions of the Lango people. According to the elders, "Ingamu" was the original name of Africa, used to describe the continent in its entirety. The etymology of "Ingamu" is attributed to a wild root tuber, which was considered a vital food source in the region. The study also found that other names associated with Africa, such as "Nubia," "Kemet," "Al-Sudan," and "Abyssinia," were introduced later, often bearing descriptions of the continent in foreign tongues. The research also highlights the significance of gold in the region's history, with the name "Nubia" being derived from the Arabic term "nub," meaning gold. This underscores the importance of gold in the region's prosperity and cultural achievements.

Discussion The findings of this study have significant implications for our understanding of South Sudan's history and the naming of Africa. The discovery that "Ingamu" was the original name of Africa challenges prevailing narratives on the subject and highlights the importance of indigenous knowledge and oral traditions. The etymology of "Ingamu," rooted in a wild root tuber, underscores the significance of the region's natural environment and cultural heritage.

The study also highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of the region's history, with various empires, dynasties, and kingdoms contributing to its rich cultural tapestry. The significance of gold in the region's history is also underscored, with the name "Nubia" serving as a testament to its importance.

Conclusion This thesis has explored the rich and complex history of South Sudan, with a particular focus on its ancient roots and the etymology of its name. Through a critical analysis of existing literature and primary research on Lango oral history, this study has shed new light on the significance of the name "Ingamu" and its place in the context of African history. The findings of this research have significant implications for our understanding of the region's cultural heritage and the naming of Africa, highlighting the importance of indigenous knowledge and oral traditions.

Recommendations Further research is needed to explore the significance of "Ingamu" in other African cultures and oral traditions. The study recommends the inclusion of indigenous knowledge and oral traditions in the teaching of African history and cultural studies. The government of South Sudan should consider promoting the cultural heritage and history of the region, including the significance of "Ingamu" and other ancient names.

Limitations This study was limited by the availability of primary sources and the challenges associated with conducting research in a region with a complex and often fragmented historical record. Future research should seek to build on this study, exploring the significance of "Ingamu" in other contexts and shedding further light on the complex history of South Sudan.

Table 1: Lango Oral Traditions on the Name "Ingamu" Source: Primary research conducted between 2008-2025.

Appendix: B: Interview with Abondio, former chief of Lango Appendix B: Interview with Teresa Juju, Lango woman and daughter of King Lopwanya Appendix C: Interview with Cladio Lou, former Payam Administrator and community member Appendix D: Lango Language Program transcripts Appendix E: Radio program schedule and topics

External links

• Gurtong Peace Project - South Sudanese Communities