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Jōmon people

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Diorama of Jōmon people at the Sannai-Maruyama museum

The Jōmon people (縄文 人, Jōmon jin) were the principal hunter-gatherer inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period (c. 14,000 – 300 BCE), a major phase of Japan's prehistoric era.

They are considered a foundational population in the genetic and cultural ancestry of the modern Japanese people.

Etymology

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Jōmon (縄文, Jōmon), sometimes written as Jomon (American English /ˈdʒoʊˌmɑːn/ JOH-mahn, British English /ˈdʒəʊmɒn/ JOH-mon),[1] literally meaning "cord-marked" or "cord pattern", is a Japanese word coined by American zoologist, archaeologist, and orientalist Edward S. Morse in his book Shell Mounds of Omori (1879), which he wrote after he discovered sherds of cord-marked pottery in 1877 at the Ōmori Shell Mound dating to the period now known as the Jōmon period. He subsequently translated "straw-rope pattern" from English to Japanese as Jōmon to refer to the people living during this period of Japanese history.[2][3][4] Other names for Jōmon pottery have been used in the first few decades after the discovery such as "Ainu school pottery" and "Shell mound pottery" before the term Jōmon was widely accepted by the archeological community.[4] It was only in 1937 that the historian Yamanouchi Sugao used the pottery term to define the pre-rice agricultural period related to this same pottery.[5]

The word is composed of two kanji: 縄 and 文.

  • 縄 (jō) using its Go-on reading, means "rope" or "cord", specifically "a flexible, heavy cord of tightly intertwined hemp or other fibers." This kanji derives etymologically from Old Japanese, from the Proto-Japonic napa, related to the verb 綯う (nau, "to plait or twist together into twine or line").[6][7][8]
  • 文 (mon), also using its Go-on reading, here means "pattern" or "design", as seen in words like moyō (模様) or mon'yō (文様).[9]

It can be used as a common noun meaning "cord pattern", or as a proper noun which is the short version referring specifically to the Jōmon period. These kanji appear in various related terms, creating a lexical field centered around Jōmon culture, including:

  • 縄文時代 (Jōmon jidai, "Jōmon period")
  • 縄文式土器 (Jōmon-shiki doki, "Jōmon ware")
  • 縄文人 (Jōmon-jin, "Jōmon people")
  • 縄文土器 (Jōmon doki, "Jōmon pottery")[10]

History of Jōmon archaeology

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Early descriptions and depictions

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The study of the Jōmon people and their material culture has evolved significantly since the Edo period. One of the earliest recorded depictions of Jōmon artifacts dates back to Edo-period antiquarians, who sketched and documented unusual pottery sherds found in shell middens. The 18th-century traveler Sugae Masumi mentioned Jōmon-era remains in his writings, including his book Sumika no Yama (c. 1800), which referenced shell mounds and prehistoric pottery discovered during his travels.[11] Early antiquarians often misidentified these remains as relics of legendary figures or lost civilizations rather than indigenous Japanese prehistory.

During the early Meiji period (1868–1912), the emergence of modern archaeology in Japan led to a more systematic study of prehistoric remains. The first significant scholarly recognition of Jōmon culture came in 1877, when Edward S. Morse, an American zoologist and orientalist, excavated the Ōmori Shell Mound near Tokyo. Morse coined the term Jōmon (縄文, "cord-marked") to describe the distinctive pottery he uncovered, characterized by impressions made using twisted cords.[3] His work marked the beginning of formal archaeological study of the Jōmon period, although early interpretations remained influenced by Western models of cultural evolution.

Early 20th-century theories and discoveries

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By the early 20th century, Japanese archaeologists began conducting their own excavations, shifting from foreign-led expeditions to national research initiatives. Scholars such as Tsuboi Shōgorō and Torii Ryūzō further investigated shell middens, burial sites, and Jōmon settlements. Kokugaku ('National Learning') scholars sought to frame Jōmon culture within Japan's historical narrative, often contrasting it with later Yayoi-period rice agriculture.[12] During the 1920s–30s, Kojima Gizaemon and Hamada Kōsaku led efforts to establish regional typologies of Jōmon pottery, classifying styles into chronological phases based on stratigraphy, the study of sediment layers and artifacts over time. Excavations at sites such as Kasori Shell Midden (Chiba) provided crucial evidence of long-term settlement and subsistence patterns.[13]

The post-World War II era saw a major shift in Japanese archaeology, fueled by the rapid expansion of academic institutions and government-funded excavations. Researchers such as Serizawa Chōsuke and Yamanouchi Sugao played key roles in redefining Jōmon chronology, refining pottery typologies, and identifying major Jōmon sub-periods (Incipient, Initial, Early, Middle, Late, Final).[14]

Post-war expansion and new interpretations (1945–1990s)

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Between the 1950s and 1970s, archaeology in Japan expanded rapidly due to post-war reconstruction projects and large-scale public works. The Cultural Properties Protection Law (1950) required archaeological investigations before construction, leading to the excavation of thousands of Jōmon sites. The discovery of large settlements, such as Sannai Maruyama (Aomori) in the 1990s, revealed that Jōmon groups lived in permanent or semi-permanent villages, contradicting earlier assumptions that they were exclusively nomadic hunter-gatherers.[15]

By the late 20th century, new perspectives emerged regarding Jōmon social complexity. "Complex hunter-gatherers" theory became widely accepted, recognizing Jōmon societies as displaying features typically associated with agricultural civilizations, such as long-term settlement, social hierarchy, and advanced craft specialization (e.g., lacquerware, jade ornaments, figurines).[16] International collaboration also increased, with researchers drawing comparisons between Jōmon society and other prehistoric cultures, such as the North American Pacific Northwest and Mesolithic Europe.

21st-century advances and theoretical shifts

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The 21st century has seen major advancements in Jōmon archaeology, driven by scientific dating techniques, DNA analysis, and interdisciplinary studies.

  • Chronological Refinements: Advances in radiocarbon dating (AMS C-14 dating) have refined the Jōmon timeline, pushing back the origins of pottery to 16,500 BCE at sites like Ōdai Yamamoto I (Aomori).[17] This supports the idea that Japan was one of the earliest centers of pottery production in the world.
  • Ancient DNA Analysis: Genetic studies of Jōmon skeletal remains (e.g., from Funadomari Shell Midden) have provided insights into their genetic baggage and legacy.[18]
  • Environmental Adaptation Studies: Climate reconstructions suggest that Jōmon societies adapted to Holocene climate fluctuations, moving between coastal and inland settlements as sea levels changed.[19]
  • Jōmon Ritual and Symbolism: Research into ceremonial sites, such as Ōyu Stone Circles (Akita) and Omori Katsuyama Stone Circle (Aomori), indicates that Jōmon people constructed monumental ritual landscapes, challenging earlier perceptions that only agricultural societies built large-scale structures.[20]
  • UNESCO Recognition: In 2021, 17 Jōmon sites across Hokkaidō and northern Honshū were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage sites, recognizing Jōmon culture as one of the longest-lasting forager traditions in the world.[21]

Lifestyle

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The culture of the Jōmon people was largely based on food collection and hunting, but it is also suggested that the Jōmon people practiced early agriculture.[22] They gathered tree nuts and shellfish, were involved in hunting and fishing, and also practiced some degree of agriculture, such as the cultivation of the adzuki bean and soybean.[23] The Jōmon people also used pottery, and generally lived in pit dwellings.[24]

Settlements

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Settlements changed throughout the Jōmon period and its different phases.

Dug out roads have been excavated in Sannai Maruyama, which linked the multiple facilities of the settlement and served for the transport of goods and people through the settlement and to other smaller settlements. On both sides of the roads were aligned graves. Other facilities excavated include standard and large pit dwellings, dumping grounds, mounds, pit graves, children graves, graves with stone circles, storage pits, regular and large pillar-supported structures, and watering place for soaking Japanese horse chestnuts.

Pit dwellings are buildings built by digging a shallow hole in the ground and installing a roof over it, with a hearth in its center. As they are relatively small on average, it is thought that families of 4 to 6 people spanning 2 to 3 generations lived in each dwelling. The roofs were made of bark or thatch and may have been covered with soil. Altars may have been installed in some of them.

Pit dwellings longer than 10m are considered large pit dwellings and were most likely community spaces such as a meeting venue, a community workshop or a winter residence.[26]

Tools

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The Jōmon people used obsidian, jade and different kinds of wood for their crafting.[27]

Stone tools were used, mainly chipped stone tools, made of siliceous shale, but also obsidian, and other stones. Those types of tools included but were not limited to: spearheads, arrowheads, scrapers (tanged, stemmed, or not), semi-circular flat chipped stone tools (which are believed to have been used to prepare plant foods), knives, and stone drills.

Other stone implements made without the chipping process included ground stone axes (made from granodiorite, greenstone, or blueschist), abrasion cutting stone tools, whetstones, grinding stones (with or without pit), hammer stones, saddle querns, and stone weights.

Antlers and bones were also used for tools such as spatulas, fish hooks, harpoon heads, drills, and needles. Exclusive to antlers were hammers, where the base of the antler was used as the impact surface.

Wood was used for shafts of spears, arrows, and harpoons, and for bows and digging sticks while strips of bark were used to weave baskets.

Tools with shafts such as spears and arrows had their heads secured using bitumen.[26]

Hunting

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The Jōmon people were skilled hunters capable of targeting a variety of prey. Among them were:

The percentages of prey of each species vary from site to site but generally, wild boars and deer were at the center of the meat diet of the Jōmon. However, in the Sannai Maruyama site, flying squirrels and hares are the dominant sources of meat most likely due to environmental factors.

Hunting techniques included bows, arrows, spears, pitfall traps, and hunting dogs.[26]

Fishing

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There is evidence that the Jōmon people built ships out of large trees and used them for fishing and traveling; however, there is no agreement as to whether they used sails or paddles.[28]

Many species of fish and seafood were excavated in dumping grounds. These species lived in a variety of different habitats leading to the conclusion that the Jōmon had a vast knowledge of the sea.

Some of the fish species found are:

Fishing techniques used were harpoons, fishing spears, line fishing, and nets. Harpoon heads were detachable and had a hole at their base to tie a rope through it and reel the prey. Harpoons and spears were used to fish larger preys. Line fishing was done with antler or bone fish hooks. Two types of fish hooks existed: single-ended and coupled (or combined). Coupled fish hooks had barbs while single-ended did not but both had notches to tie the line. Stone weights were attached to nets to act as sinkers.

Shellfishes were also gathered including Japanese oysters, Ezo abalones, clams, crabs, octopuses, squids, mantis shrimps, and other crustaceans.[26]

Plant gathering and domestication

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The Jōmon grew trees in areas near their settlements and gathered edible plants. The most commonly consumed plant was the chestnut. The tree was also used as fuel and building materials.

Other plants that were part of the diet include walnut, Japanese horse chestnuts, adzuki bean, Udo, silver vine, elderberry, wild grape, mulberry, raspberry, and yam. Digging sticks were used to dig up yam.[26] A plant genomics study showed that the adzuki bean was domesticated in eastern Japan 3,000-5,000 years ago, providing evidence that, in addition to gathering and cultivating plants, Jōmon performed early domestication and selection.[29]

Food processing

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It is possible that the Jōmon might have been able to process elderberries into alcohol. Nuts, walnuts, and chestnuts were collected during autumn and were kept in storage pits or indoor inside large earthenware pots. Before use, they were crushed with hammer stones or grinding stone on top of saddle querns. Japanese horse chestnut and other chestnuts with strong scents were soaked in water to mellow the taste.

At the Sannai Maruyama site, a watering place was discovered that may have been used to process nuts through soaking. The remains were a reservoir of water that was filled and emptied by the stream's spring.[26]

Cooking

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Cooking was done on the fireplace of the dwelling using smaller earthenware pots other than the ones used for storage.

During the Middle Jōmon period, earthenware was made in various shapes including pedestal shallow shapes, dishes, and bowls; all thought to have been used to serve food.

Round bottom wooden containers are thought to have been held in one hand while pouring liquids.[26]

Trade networks

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The Jōmon people maintained extensive trade networks that spanned several hundred kilometers across the Japanese archipelago. Key trade items included obsidian, gemstones such as jade, amber, asphalt, and various types of stone materials used to produce polished stone axes—including granodiorite, greenstone, and blueschist—as well as red pigments.

Some materials were transported in raw form, while others were traded as finished goods. Certain archaeological sites were specialized in the production or trade of specific raw materials or crafted items. For example, the Sannai Maruyama site, a major trading hub, was particularly known for refining and crafting jade artifacts. It also engaged in the exchange of finished obsidian tools, including those sourced from as far away as Hokkaido and Nagano. These tools, made of high-quality obsidian, have been found over 700 kilometers from their origin points.

Evidence of trade between Hokkaido and Honshu, as well as between Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa), suggests that the Jōmon people were skilled navigators and seafarers capable of long-distance maritime travel.[26]

According to a 2006 study, it is likely that the Jōmon traded with southern Chinese and Southeast Asians via Fujian.[30]

Culture

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See also: Jōmon period

Elements of Jōmon culture are believed to be preserved in various aspects of modern Japanese culture. These include early forms of spiritual beliefs that preceded Shinto, as well as marriage customs, architectural styles, festivals, and traditional crafts such as lacquerware and pottery. These cultural traits are considered integral to the development of Japanese cultural identity.[31]

Other examples of Jōmon influence in present Japanese culture, especially in Kyūshū, include the worship of Ame-no-Uzume (アメノウズメ) in Miyazaki Prefecture, Ta no Kami-sa (田の神さぁ) in the Aso region of Kumamoto Prefecture, and the Mishaguji (ミシャグジ) belief system.[32][33][34]

Pottery

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kaen-style pottery (火焔型土器)
Main article: Jōmon pottery

Jōmon pottery is identifiable by its distinctive cord-marked patterns, a style in which ropes were pressed into the surface of wet clay to create decorative designs. This technique, characteristic of the early Jōmon period, is widely regarded as one of the oldest forms of pottery in East Asia and the world. Among the most famous examples is the kaen-style pottery (火焔型土器, kaen-gata doki) from the Middle Jōmon period, noted for its elaborate patterns and dynamic forms.[35]

In addition to pottery and jars, the Jōmon people also produced a large number of highly stylized clay figurines (dogū) and clay masks, reflecting a rich tradition of symbolic and ritualistic art.[36]

Lacquerware

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Lacquerware included wooden bowls, dishes, and combs. It was mixed with red pigments to give it a red color. Lacquer tree sap was collected from cultivated and managed areas. The steps to make lacquerware were:

  • Collect the sap
  • Remove the excess moisture
  • Purify the sap
  • Mix it with red pigments
  • Apply the lacquer by hand to the ware

Red pigments were made from ferrous quartz, then ground into powder before mixing it with lacquer. Some pottery was directly painted with red pigments instead of lacquering it.[26]

Clothing

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Fabric made with twisted warp called angin were found at Sannai Maruyama. It is believed that cloth and clothings were made of weaved twisted plant fiber such as hemp in this way.

The Jōmon people also practiced sewing using bone and antlers needles.[26]

Jewelry and accessories

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Magatama – kidney-shaped beads – are commonly found in Jōmon period Japanese finds, as well as in parts of Northeast Asia and Siberia.

A wide variety of materials were used in the creation of Jōmon accessories, including clay, stone, bone, shells, and lacquered wood. These ornaments are believed to have been used not only for special occasions but also in everyday life.[37]

Excavations have uncovered bone hairpins and lacquered wooden combs, which were likely used to fasten and decorate tied hair. Cylindrical or drum-shaped earrings made of clay were worn by inserting them into pierced earlobes, while slender stone earrings were also passed through ear holes.[38]

Many of these ornament styles show notable similarities to accessories found in later periods of Japanese history, suggesting a lasting influence of Jōmon aesthetics on subsequent Japanese decorative traditions.[37]

Magatama

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Magatama are curved, comma-shaped beads with a distinctive C-shape and a hole at one end, typically used as ornaments or ceremonial objects. They are believed to have been invented by the Jōmon people and have been excavated from archaeological sites throughout Japan.[39]

Magatama continued to be widely used not only during the Jōmon period but also throughout the Yayoi and Kofun periods, remaining an important accessory in Japanese culture. Today, magatama are still revered as sacred objects in various Shinto shrines and also appear in Japanese mythology. One of the Imperial Regalia of Japan, the Yasakani no Magatama (八尺瓊勾玉), is considered a symbol of the Japanese monarchy.[40]

These artifacts were most commonly made from jade (jadeite), but examples crafted from stone, clay, and boar tusks have also been discovered. The materials and production techniques varied by region and era, reflecting both local resources and cultural influences.[39]

Religion

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Main article: Ko-Shintō

It is suggested that the religion of the Jōmon people was similar to early Shinto, specifically Ko-Shintō. It was largely based on animism, and possibly shamanism. Other similar religions are the Ryukyuan and Ainu religions.[41] Certain strange stone implements in various shapes are thought to have been used as talisman.[26]

Rituals and festivals

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Accessories and jewelry are thought to have been worn more during special occasions such as festivals, burials, and rituals than in everyday life.[26]

Central ritual sites outside settlements and belonging to multiple villages have started to appear during the Late Jōmon period[25] but hub settlements also acting as central ritual hubs appeared during the Middle Jōmon period.

Mounds were built using refuse from soil excavation and daily life activities, but were not merely dumping grounds; instead, they had special significance as places of rituals.

Stone and clay figurines are believed to have been used for festivals. Many represented women with breasts and parts or holes possibly representing genitalia. They are thought to have been a way of praying for fertility in festivals. Asphalt has been used on some of them to attempt to repair them.

Miniature pottery are earthenware in extremely small sized modelled after utilitarian-sized vessels such as deep bowls for cooking and storing and shallow bowls for serving food. They are thought to have been used in ceremonies rather than as toys due to their excavations in ceremonial mounds.

Other objects found in ceremonial mounds include triangular pottery (theorized to be simplified versions of clay figurines), stick-shaped clay objects (thought to be a miniature pottery version of stone rods), stamp-shaped stones (thought to be modelled after female genitalia), walnut clay objects (created by pressing clay against inner shell of walnuts), and pottery with human figure (theorized to be shamans with head ornaments and tools).

Sword-shaped artefacts made of whale bone have been excavated and are though to have been used in fire related rituals as most have burned marks.[26] The Jōmon also crafted stone batons or rods and swords[36] which are thought to have been used for rituals and festivals as many have been exposed to fire. Other artefacts such as large jade beads have also been exposed to fire.

In Sannai Maruyama, a large structure made of 6 great pillars of chestnuts between 1 and 2 meters in diameter has been repeatedly built through the ages. It is thought to have played multiple roles such as a ritual venue, totem pole, observatory, lighthouse, and watchtower.[26]

Burials

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Graves were different for different people with adult graves being different from children's and from a few important people.

  • Adults were buried in pit graves, some with pebbles acting as grave markers or soil mounds on top of them.
  • Important people were buried in pit graves surrounded by stone circles.
  • Children were buried in reused everyday pottery and placed together away from the other graves: some had modifications done to the pottery such as breaking the rim or piercing holes at the bottom or side of it. It is possible that only infant were buried in this fashion. Some of them had fist-sized circular pebbles or flaking tools in them.

Most graves did not contain grave goods. For those that had them, it is believed that men and women were buried with different objects: hunting tools and stone arrowheads, and cooking utensils such as saddle quern respectively.

In Sannai Maruyama, pit graves have been excavated on both sides of roads, feet towards the road at slight angles. At this same site, pillar-supported structures may have been used for temporary resting place for the deceased.[26]

Languages

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It is not known what language or languages were spoken in Japan during the Jōmon period. Suggested languages are: the Ainu language, Japonic languages, Austronesian languages, or unknown and today extinct languages.[42][43] While the most supported view is to equate the Ainu language with the Jōmon language, this view is not uncontroversial or easily acceptable as there were probably multiple distinct language families spoken by the Jōmon period population of the Japanese archipelago.[44]

Alexander Vovin (1993) argues that the Ainu languages originated in central Honshu, and were later pushed northwards into Hokkaido, where the early Ainu-speakers merged with local groups, forming the historical Ainu ethnicity. Bilingualism between Ainu and Japanese was common in Tohoku until the 10th century.[45][46] According to Vovin (2021) there is also some evidence for the presence of Austronesian languages close to the Japanese archipelago, which may have contributed some loanwords to early Japanese.[46]

Some linguists suggest that the Japonic languages may have been already present within the Japanese archipelago and coastal Korea, before the Yayoi period, and can be linked to one of the Jōmon populations of southwestern Japan, rather than the later Yayoi or Kofun period rice-agriculturalists. Japonic-speakers rapidly grew during the Yayoi period by assimilating the newcomers, adopting rice growing, and fusing mainland Asian technologies with local traditions.[47]

Origins

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See also: Genetic history of East Asians § Diversification and substructure, Genetic history of East Asians § Jōmon people, and Genetic and anthropometric studies on Japanese people

The Jōmon people represent the descendants of the Paleolithic inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, which became isolated from other mainland Asian groups some 22,000 to 25,000 years ago. They have been described as "one of the most deeply diverged populations in East Asia".[48][49][50][51]

Genetics

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Phylogenetic position of the Jōmon lineage among other East Eurasians
Demographic history of the Jomon lineage (A) Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree reconstructed by TreeMix under a model of two migrations
Principal component analysis (PCA) of ancient and present-day individuals from worldwide populations

The Jōmon lineage is inferred to have diverged from Ancient East Asians between 25 and 38,000 years ago, after the divergence of the Basal East Asian Tianyuan and Hoabinhian lineages but before the divergence of Ancient Northern East Asians and Ancient Southern East Asians.[52][53][49] Like other East Asian populations, the ancestors of the Jōmon people originated from Southeast Asia and expanded to East Asia via a coastal route. They represent one of the "earliest waves of migration".[49][54][55][56]

The Jōmon lineage displays a closer genetic affinity to Ancient Northern and Southern East Asian lineages, compared to the Tianyuan or Hoabinhian lineages, and have a similar divergence date as the closely related "Longlin" ancestry from Guangxi.[49] Beyond their genetic affinity with other Eastern Asian lineages, the Jōmon also display a weak genetic affinity with the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site specimen, associated with Ancient North Eurasians (or Ancient North Siberians), which may point to geneflow between both groups prior to their isolation from other East Eurasian populations.[53] According to Bennet et al., "one explanation may be that Tianyuan-like early ancestors of the Jōmon interacted with groups that entered Siberia through a northern migration route".[57] This geneflow may be associated with the introduction of microblade technology to northern Japan[58] but so far, there is no evidence for direct geneflow from ANE-like (MA-1) sources into the Jōmon, suggesting instead a non-demic diffusion.[59][60][61] However, the Jōmon have genetic affinities with lowland East Asians and northeast Siberians, which imply later contact episodes between the Jōmon and other East Eurasian populations.[30][62][63][64][65][66][67][68] These affinities likely remained stable from the Initial to Final Jōmon periods.[69]

Overall, the Jōmon overwhelmingly share an ancestral component with the Yokchido individual from ancient Korea, who have about 95-100% Jōmon ancestry.[70][71][72] To a lesser extent, they share an ancestral component with southern Chinese, Southeast Asians and Oceanians, which is further maximized in Papuans and Vanuatuans, especially Mainland and Hokkaido Jōmon. This component is shared by Yayoi peoples too, suggesting an origin from another deeply diverged old Asian lineage.[70] The Jōmon also mixed with southern East Asians, as well as Siberians for Hokkaido Jōmon,[73] although there is no evidence of Taiwanese aborigines, for example, being directly involved in the formation of Miyako Islanders.[74]

Jōmon and Continental Asian contributions to modern Japanese

Full genome studies on multiple Jōmon remains revealed them to carry gene alleles associated with a higher alcohol tolerance, wet earwax, no derived variant of the EDAR gene, and that they likely frequently consumed fatty sea and land animals. They also carried alleles for medium to light skin, dark and fine/thin hair, and brown eyes. Some samples also displayed a higher risk of developing liver spots as a result of excessive sun exposure.[54][75][76]

Genetic data further indicates that the Jōmon peoples were genetically predisposed for higher triglyceride and blood sugar levels, increasing the risk of obesity. At the same time, it gave them resistance to starvation. Modern Japanese share these alleles with the Jōmon period population, although at lower and variable frequency, in line with the inferred admixture among modern Japanese peoples. Watanabe et al. stated that the genetic predisposition for shorter stature among Japanese people often correlates with high Jōmon ancestry, with the opposite correlating with high continental East Asian ancestry.[54] However, Yamamoto et al. (2024) stated that the association of Jōmon ancestry with the decrease of height is observable only if principal components are not accounted for in the test, indicating that this association can be confounded by population stratification. They also found indications for an influence on the Body Mass Index, including a higher risk of obesity among modern Japanese, but also higher frequency of "active functions in skeletal muscle cells" and "increased bone mineral density", which may have been related to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of the Jōmon people.[77]

Haplogroups

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It is thought that the haplogroups D-M55 (D1a2a) and C1a1 were frequent among the historical Jōmon period people of Japan. One 3,800 year old Jōmon man excavated from Rebun Island was found to belong to Haplogroup D1a2b1(D-CTS 220).[78] Today, haplogroup D-M55 is found in about 35%[79] and haplogroup C1a1 in about 6% of modern Japanese people. D-M55 is found regularly only in Japanese (Ainu, Ryukyuans, and Yamato), and Koreans (albeit with much lower frequency).[80] D-M55 also has been observed in Micronesia 5.1%, Timor 0.2%, China 0–0.4%, this is explained by recent admixture, dating back to the Japanese empire (1868–1945) occupation of those regions.[80] Haplogroup C1a1 has been found regularly in about 6% of modern Japanese. Elsewhere, it has been observed sporadically in individuals from South Korea, North Korea (South Hwanghae Province), and China (ethnic Korean in Ning'an and Han Chinese in Linghai, Guancheng Hui District, Haigang District, and Dinghai District).[81] A 2021 study estimated that the frequency of the D-M55 clade increased during the late Jōmon period.[82] The divergence between the D1a2-M55 and the D1a-F6251 subclades (the latter of which is common in Tibetans, other Tibeto-Burmese groups, and Altaians, and has a moderate distribution in the rest of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia) may have occurred near the Tibetan Plateau.[79]

The MtDNA haplogroup diversity of the Jōmon people is characterized by the presence of haplogroups M7a and N9b.[83][62][84] Studies published in 2004 and 2007 show the combined frequency of M7a and N9b observed in modern Japanese to be from 12~15% to 17% in mainstream Japanese.[85][86] N9b is frequently found among the Hokkaido Jōmon while M7a is found frequently among the Honshu Jōmon.[87] However N9b is found only at very low percentage among the Honshu Jōmon.[87] Both M7a and N9b have coalescent times about 10,000 years ago. Studies have suggested that M7a originated from westward migrations from the Korean peninsula whilst N9b was introduced from Northeast Asia via Sakhalin and Hokkaido. However, it is likely that these haplogroups were indigenous to the Japanese archipelago, with early Jōmon being "located on branches closer to the root".[88] Haplogroup M7a now has its highest frequency in Okinawa.[89]

Using the Fossa Magna as the boundary line, M7a was more common in western Jōmon whilst N9b was more common in eastern Jōmon, which can be explained by genetic drift.[88] Other studies state that M7a was present at all sites in Early Jōmon Japan, whether northern or southern, although N9b was not found at any site below Kyushu. In Middle Jōmon Japan, M7a and N9b were both observed, especially at the Chiba Prefecture. In Late Jōmon Japan, M7a was present in Hokkaido and Okinawa. N9b was common in Funadomari whilst D4b2 and D4h2 were common in the Shomyoji shell midden and Funadomari respectively. In the Final Jōmon, N9b prevailed in Hokkaido whilst N9b and M7a were both observed in Honshu. The following sites in Hokkaido have these common haplogroups; G1b at Usu-Moshiri, G1b and D4h2 at Usu-Moshiri, G1b at Minami-Usu 6 and D4h2 at Onkoromanai.[90]

Morphological characteristics

[edit]
Male skull of the late Jōmon period (replica). Excavated at Miyano Kaizuka (Iwate Prefecture). Exhibition in National Museum of Nature and Science.[91]

Within Japan, regional variance among different Jōmon remains existed, but overall a coherent morphology was found. Historically, the Jōmon people were classified as "South Mongoloid" or "Proto-Mongoloid". Despite their close affinities with East Asian peoples, they were morphologically more similar to Native American samples and to an extent, Negrito samples.[92][93][94][95] They also resembled groups such as "[...] Southeast Asians, Upper Paleolithic Asians, or Northeastern Asians, as well as present-day indigenous populations of the Ainu of Hokkaido and Ryukyu Islanders".[57] Certain Jōmon features also indicate a long-term adaptation to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle[96][97] and to an extent, colder climates.[98][99][100]

Forensic reconstruction from a Jōmon skull, displayed at Niigata Prefectural Museum of History

Dental morphology suggests that the Jōmon had Sundadont dental structure which is more common among modern Southeast Asians and indigenous Taiwanese, and is ancestral to the Sinodont dental structure commonly found among modern Northeast Asians, suggesting that the Jōmon split from the common "Ancestral East Asians" prior to the formation of modern Northeast Asians.[101]

Kondo et al. analyzed the regional morphological and craniometric characteristics of the Jōmon-era population of Japan, and found that they were morphologically heterogeneous and displayed differences along a Northeast to Southwest cline. Differences were based on the cranial index, with Hokkaido Epi- Jōmon crania being mesocephalic and Okinawan crania being brachycephalic. They concluded that the " Jōmon skulls, especially in the neurocranium, exhibit a discernible level of northeast-to-southwest geographical cline across the Japanese archipelago, placing the Hokkaido and Okinawa samples at both extreme ends. The following scenarios can be hypothesized with caution: (a) the formation of Jōmon population seemed to proceed in eastern or central Japan, not western Japan (Okinawa or Kyushu regions); (b) the Kyushu Jōmon could have a small-sized and isolated population history; and (c) the population history of Hokkaido Jōmon could have been deeply rooted and/or affected by long-term extrinsic gene flows." They also suggested that regional differences in cranial length is based on genetic, or phylogenetic, and environmental effects.[102] But Gakuhari et al. clarifies that Hokkaido and Honshu Jōmon cluster together and form a clade to the exclusion of other groups.[76]

Chatters, citing anthropologist C. Loring Brace, classified Jōmon and Polynesians as a single craniofacial "Jōmon -Pacific" cluster.[103] Chatters, citing Powell, argues that the Jōmon most resembled the Native American Kennewick Man and Polynesians. According to him, the Ainu descend from the Jōmon people, an East Asian population with "closest biological affinity with south-east Asians rather than western Eurasian peoples".[104][105] Powell further describes the dental structure of the Jōmon to be of the Sundadont type,[103] whilst also displaying some similarities to the Native American Kennewick Man.[104] There were also close morphological similarities between the ~33,000 to 23,000 years old Liujiang man from Guangxi, southern China and the Minatogawa man from Okinawa.[106][107]

The Jōmon also displayed affinities with Australo-Papuan groups, similar to prehistoric populations from southern China and Southeast Asia, especially Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers, along with the Zhoukoudian remains from Beijing, China. They possessed traits such as 'dolichocephalic calvaria, large zygomatic bones, remarkably prominent glabellae and superciliary arches, concave nasal roots, and low and wide faces',[108][109][110] yet were genetically closer or ancestral to later East Asians despite phenotypic discontinuities, pointing to a legacy of Paleolithic variations lost in modern Eastern Asian populations.[111][112]

Craniofacial features of the Jōmon people were significantly retained by the Ainu and Okinawans/Ryukyuans.[113] The former have 2 genes "associated with facial structure in Europeans" but still possessed hair and teeth morphology found in East Asians.[114] In regards to facial flatness, the Ainu were intermediate between Caucasoids and Mongoloids[115] but another study states that they were well within the Mongoloid range.[116] The latter have a "well-defined and less flat upper face", which is characterized by a prominent glabella and nasal root.[113] Among contemporary Japanese subpopulations, Kinki populations phenotypically differ the most from Jōmon people, especially Hokkaido Ainu. Other subpopulations were more intermediate although morphological similarities exist between Hokkaido Ainu and contemporary Tohoku populations.[117]

ATL retrovirus

[edit]

A gene common in Jōmon people is a retrovirus of ATL (human T lymphotropic virus, HTVL-I). This virus was discovered as a cause of adult T cell leukemia (ATL), and research was advanced by Yorio Hinuma of Kyoto University Virus Research Institute.[118]

Although it was known that many virus carriers existed in Japan, it was not found at all in neighboring countries of East Asia. Meanwhile, it has been found in many Africans, Native Americans, Tibetans, Siberians, Burmese people, Indigenous people of New Guinea, Polynesians, etc. Looking at distribution in Japan, it is seen particularly frequently in southern Kyushu, Nagasaki Prefecture, Okinawa and among the Ainu. And it is seen at medium frequency in the southern part of Shikoku, southern part of the Kii Peninsula, the Pacific side of the Tōhoku region (Sanriku) and Oki Islands. Overall, carriers of the ATL retrovirus were found to be more common in remote areas and remote islands. When examining the well-developed areas of ATL in each region of Kyushu, Shikoku, and Tōhoku in detail, carriers are preserved at high rates in small settlements that were isolated from the surroundings and inconvenient for traffic.[119][118]

The path of natural infection of this virus is limited to vertical infection between women and children (most often through breastfeeding) and horizontal infection between males and females (most often from males to females through sexual intercourse).[120]

Based on the above, Hinuma concluded that the high frequency area of this virus indicates that high density remains of Jōmon people.[119]

Contributions to other populations

[edit]

Historical groups

[edit]

Full genome analyses of Okhotsk culture remains on Sakhalin found them to be derived from three major sources, notably Ancient Northeast Asians, Ancient Paleo-Siberians, and Jōmon people of Japan. An admixture analysis revealed them to carry c. 54% Ancient Northeast Asian, c. 22% Ancient Paleo-Siberian, and c. 24% Jōmon ancestries respectively.[121]

Genetic analyses on ancient remains from the southern Korean Peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period reveal elevated Jōmon ancestry at c. 37%, while Yayoi remains in Japan were found to carry nearly equal amounts of Jōmon ancestry (35–60%) and Ancient Northeast Asian-like ancestry (40–65%). These results suggest the presence of a Jōmon-like population on the Korean peninsula and their significant contribution to the formation of early Japonic-speakers. As such, the "agricultural transition in prehistoric Japan involved the process of assimilation, rather than replacement, with almost equal genetic contributions from the indigenous Jōmon and mainland Asian migrants of the Mumun/Yayoi period". The Jōmon-like ancestry in Korea was 'diluted' over time due to subsequent arrivals of Neolithic West Liao River farmers from northeast China.[53][122]

Modern groups

[edit]
The Ainu are among the modern groups displaying the highest amounts Jōmon-derived ancestry.

The Ainu have the highest proportion of Jōmon ancestry among modern populations, estimated at up to 70%, followed by the Ryukyuan/Okinawan people at around 30%, and mainland Japanese at approximately 10-20%. The proportion of Jōmon ancestry varies regionally, being highest in the Tōhoku and Kyūshū regions, and lowest in Kinki and Shikoku, where Yayoi ancestry is more dominant. Residents of Tōhoku, Kantō, and Kyūshū show closer genetic affinity with Ryukyuans. Genetic relatedness between the Ainu and mainland Japanese is particularly strong in western Hokkaidō and Aomori. It is also believed that mainland Japanese primarily derive their Jōmon ancestry from western Jōmon populations. [117][123][124]

Low levels of Jōmon ancestry have been identified among Koreans (approximately 1-5%), as well as in some Northeast Asian and coastal East Asian populations. For example, Taiwanese aborigines like Ami and Atayal, along with Kra-Dai populations, have some genetic affinities with the Jōmon.[123][76][125]

[edit]

Aspects of the Jōmon culture and pottery were used in the video game The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild. Nintendo's art director Takizawa Satoru said that the Jōmon culture was the inspiration for the "Sheikah slates, shrines and other ancient objects" in the game.[126]

A recreated Jōmon village in the form of an experience park (Sarashina no Sato), which offers different activities, can be visited in Chikuma, Nagano.[127]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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    The dual nature of Japanese population structure was advanced by Miller, who proposed that the resident Jōmon population spoke an Altaic language ancestral to modern Japanese, and this Altaic tongue underwent Austronesian influence when the islanders absorbed the bearers of the incursive Yayoi culture.
  48. ^ Adachi, Noboru; Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Nara, Takashi; Kakuda, Tsuneo; Nishida, Iwao; Shinoda, Ken-Ichi (2021). "Ancient genomes from the initial Jomon period: new insights into the genetic history of the Japanese archipelago". Anthropological Science. 129 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1537/ase.2012132. As mentioned above, Jomon people are descendants of a common ancestor, although the process of their formation is still unknown. However, their origin dates back to the Paleolithic period based on the distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups of the Jomon people and the age of divergence, which was 22000–23000 YBP (Adachi et al., 2011), and their phylogenetic basal position in the nuclear genome analysis (Kanzawa-Kiriyama et al., 2019).
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  51. ^ Cooke, Niall P.; Murray, Madeleine; Cassidy, Lara M.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Okazaki, Kenji; Kasai, Kenji; Gakuhari, Takashi; Bradley, Daniel G.; Nakagome, Shigeki (June 2024). "Genomic imputation of ancient Asian populations contrasts local adaptation in pre- and post-agricultural Japan". iScience. 27 (6): 110050. Bibcode:2024iSci...27k0050C. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.110050. PMC 11176660. PMID 38883821.
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  53. ^ a b c Cooke, Niall P.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Cassidy, Lara M.; Okazaki, Kenji; Stokes, Caroline A.; Onbe, Shin; Hatakeyama, Satoshi; Machida, Kenichi; Kasai, Kenji; Tomioka, Naoto; Matsumoto, Akihiko; Ito, Masafumi; Kojima, Yoshitaka; Bradley, Daniel G.; Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki (2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991. However, we note no dilution of Jomon ancestry in the Japanese population (15.0 ± 3.8%), relative to the Kofun individuals (13.1 ± 3.5%) (fig. S22).
  54. ^ a b c Watanabe, Yusuke; Ohashi, Jun (June 2023). "Modern Japanese ancestry-derived variants reveal the formation process of the current Japanese regional gradations". iScience. 26 (3): 106130. Bibcode:2023iSci...26j6130W. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.106130. PMC 9984562. PMID 36879818. Whole-genome analyses extracted from the remains of the Jomon people showed that they were highly differentiated from other East Asians, forming a basal lineage to East and Northeast Asians.8,10,11 The genetic relationship between Jomon individuals and other East Asians suggests that the ancestral population of the Jomon people is one of the earliest wave migrants who might have taken a coastal route from Southeast Asia toward East Asia.11 It was also revealed that the Jomon people are genetically closely related to the Ainu/Ryukyuan population and that 10–20% of the genomic components found in mainland Japanese are derived from the Jomon people.8,10 Recent studies have found that, in addition to the "East Asian" population, which is closely related to modern Han Chinese, the "Northeast Asian" population also contributed to the ancestry of modern Japanese people.12,13 Cooke et al. 202113 showed the deep divergence of the Jomon people from continental populations, including the "East Asians" and "Northeast Asians"; thus, it can be concluded that the modern mainland Japanese are a population with genomic components derived from a basal East Asian lineage (i.e., the Jomon people) and from continental East Asians.
  55. ^ Aoki, Kenichi; Takahata, Naoyuki; Oota, Hiroki; et al. (30 August 2023). "Infectious diseases may have arrested the southward advance of microblades in Upper Palaeolithic East Asia". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 290 (2005). doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.1262. PMC 10465978. PMID 37644833. These observations are consistent with the view that soon after the single eastward migration of modern humans, East Asians diverged in southern East Asia and dispersed northward across the continent.
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  60. ^ Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten E.; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid Ní; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro; Kondo, Osamu; Shigehara, Nobuo; Yoneda, Minoru; Kimura, Ryosuke; Ishida, Hajime; Masuyama, Tadayuki; Yamada, Yasuhiro; Tajima, Atsushi; Shibata, Hiroki; Toyoda, Atsushi; Tsurumoto, Toshiyuki; Wakebe, Tetsuaki; Shitara, Hiromi; Hanihara, Tsunehiko; Willerslev, Eske; Sikora, Martin; Oota, Hiroki (25 August 2020). "Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations". Communications Biology. 3 (1): 437. doi:10.1038/s42003-020-01162-2. PMC 7447786. PMID 32843717. Therefore, there was no detectable signature of gene flow from MA-1 to the ancient/present-day Southeast/East Asians including IK002.
  61. ^ Abood, Steven; Oota, Hiroki (14 February 2025). "Human dispersal into East Eurasia: ancient genome insights and the need for research on physiological adaptations". Journal of Physiological Anthropology. 44 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/s40101-024-00382-3. PMC 11829451. PMID 39953642. However, the fact that no evidence of gene flow from Mal'ta was detected in the genome of the Ikawazu Jomon individual was a novel discovery. To what extent did the genome of the northern route influence the Jomon people? In the genome of the Ikawazu Jomon individual, no evidence of gene flow from the northern route was detected. Sufficient DNA was extracted from one of the two Jomon skeletons excavated from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, allowing for the determination of a complete genome sequence. The Funadomari Jomon genome sequence had a high depth of coverage, and analysis revealed a remarkable genetic similarity to the Ikawazu Jomon. Including this Funadomari Jomon sequence, genome sequence data from approximately 10 Jomon individuals have been registered in public databases and are available for analysis. To date, the conclusion remains unchanged.
  62. ^ a b Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Saso, Aiko; Suwa, Gen; Saitou, Naruya (2013). "Ancient mitochondrial DNA sequences of Jomon teeth samples from Sanganji, Tohoku district, Japan". Anthropological Science. 121 (2): 89–103. doi:10.1537/ase.121113.
  63. ^ Jeong, Choongwon; Nakagome, Shikegi; Rienzo, Anna Di (2016). "Deep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu". Genetics. 202 (1): 261–272. doi:10.1534/genetics.115.178673. PMC 4701090. PMID 26500257.
  64. ^ Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Kryukov, Kirill; Jinam, Timothy A; Hosomichi, Kazuyoshi; Saso, Aiko; Suwa, Gen; Ueda, Shintaroh; Yoneda, Minoru; Tajima, Atsushi; Shinoda, Ken-ichi; Inoue, Ituro; Saitou, Naruya (February 2017). "A partial nuclear genome of the Jomons who lived 3000 years ago in Fukushima, Japan". Journal of Human Genetics. 62 (2): 213–221. doi:10.1038/jhg.2016.110. PMC 5285490. PMID 27581845 – via Nature. Allele sharing analysis using 5392 SNP sites showed that the Ainu had the highest percentage of allele sharing with the Sanganji Jomon, followed by the Ryukyuan, the mainland Japanese and CHB, similar to the projection of PC1 in Figure 2b. Using the HGDP East Eurasian data set with 7081 SNP sites, the mainland Japanese had the highest allele sharing with the Sanganji Jomon. Interestingly, southern East Eurasians had slightly higher allele-sharing percentages than northern East Eurasians, although we have to be careful with the effect of post-mortem changes.
  65. ^ Yang, Melinda A.; Fan, Xuechun; Sun, Bo; Chen, Chungyu; Lang, Jianfeng; Ko, Ying-Chin; Tsang, Cheng-hwa; Chiu, Hunglin; Wang, Tianyi; Bao, Qingchuan; Wu, Xiaohong; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Ding, Manyu; Cao, Peng; Yang, Ruowei; Liu, Feng; Nickel, Birgit; Dai, Qingyan; Feng, Xiaotian; Zhang, Lizhao; Sun, Chengkai; Ning, Chao; Zeng, Wen; Zhao, Yongsheng; Zhang, Ming; Gao, Xing; Cui, Yinqiu; Reich, David; Stoneking, Mark; Fu, Qiaomei (17 July 2020). "Ancient DNA indicates human population shifts and admixture in northern and southern China". Science. 369 (6501): 282–288. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..282Y. doi:10.1126/science.aba0909. PMID 32409524. Instead, we find that Jōmon individual shows affinities to several coastal Neolithic populations in Siberia, as well as southern East Asia. The patterns demonstrated here show that coastal regions were areas of interconnectivity and gene flow rather than isolation.
  66. ^ de Boer, Elisabeth; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e13. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. PMC 10427481. PMID 37588377. One explanation for a connection between the Jōmon and coastal East Asians could be that the Jōmon were not completely isolated from mainland East Asians. By 3900 years ago, the date of the oldest Jōmon nuclear genome sampled, Austronesians were rapidly expanding into islands in the Pacific. The main patterns observed both in past mtDNA studies and in recent genome-wide studies of the Jōmon all seem to highlight coastal connections, which may suggest that the Jōmon experienced gene flow with populations deriving from mainland East Asia prior to any contact associated with migration of Mumun immigrants from the Korean peninsula.
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  68. ^ Bennett, Andrew E.; Liu, Yichen; Fu, Qiaomei (2025). Reconstructing the Human Population History of East Asia through Ancient Genomics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-24667-5. The current understanding is that the Jōmon represent a distinct East Asian lineage that separated from the basal East Asian lineage between 38,000 and 25,000 years ago, after the divergence of Tianyuan-related and Önge-related lineages, but prior to the separation of northern and eastern Asians and groups that would contribute to Native Americans. They appear to have remained in relative isolation, although possibly periodically interacting with neighboring mainland coastal groups.
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