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Persian clothing

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Not to be confused with Fashion in Iran, for clothing after the 1930s.
Examples of Persian clothing from book, Le costume historique (1888)
Examples of Persian clothing from book, Le costume historique (1888)
Examples of Persian clothing from book, Le costume historique (1888)
Examples of Persian clothing from book, Le costume historique (1888)

Traditional Persian clothing is the historical costume of the Persian people, and of ancient Persia (now Iran) before the 1930s Pahlavi dynasty. Historically, the fabric and color of clothing was very important.[1] During the Achaemenian period (550–330 BC), Persian clothing started to reflect social status and eminence, the climate of the region, and the season. The design philosophy for ancient clothing was a marriage of both function and aesthetics.[1]

Images of Persian clothing examples can be seen in ancient art and Persian miniature paintings.[2] Persian miniatures can employ both vivid and muted colors for clothing, although the colors of paint pigment often do not match the colors of dyes. Traditional Persian clothing is seldom worn in urban areas in modern times but has been well preserved in texts and paintings throughout history.[citation needed]

History

[edit]

Clothing in Persia is divided into several historical periods, however little is known about the earliest history.[3][4] The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization.[5]

There are historical discoveries in northern Iran from about 6,000 BC that refer to wool weaving at the time. Other discoveries in central Iran dating back to 4200 BC have shown that the animals' skin has not been the only clothing worn on the Iranian plateau since those years. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, with the fabric and color of clothing becoming very important at that time. During the Achaemenian period, clothing varied depending on social status, eminence, the climate of the region, and the season.

Achaemenid Period

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Persians

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Pleated Robes

[edit]
Persian men wearing pleated robes

The pleated robe is formed from a rectangular cloth, typically with a width of about 120–150 cm and a length exceeding the wearer’s height. It is tailored with two main components: the pleated outer garment and a lower skirt or underpiece. The main cloth is pleated in the chest and shoulder areas, leaving the arms free and forming a flowing drape down the body.[6] It is usually tied at the waist and gathered in the back, where it creates tiered waves or ridged folds, giving it both volume and shape. Some depictions suggest a front-slit design or a V-shaped neckline, while others show it as completely wrapped. The lower section consists of either one or two additional pieces that wrap around the waist and hips, often secured with a leather belt or cord, resulting in a skirt-like appearance underneath the pleated top layer.[7] In some cases, the robe may be worn in a single-piece configuration, but it also appears as a combination of upper and lower garments, creating a layered effect. Achaemenid Persian clothing was a structured and symbolic extension of the wearer’s rank, function, and geography. The garments varied in color, fabric, and cut based on social class, region, climate, and the season. Clothes were made from fine materials such as silk, linen, or wool, and were often dyed in vibrant colors like saffron, white, purple, and orange, each signifying different social or symbolic meanings. Notably, purple was reserved for royalty and those of elevated rank, often decorated with golden threads.[8]

Sketch depicting the structure of the Persian robes

The structure of the robes are contested in various sources, with some describing them as one piece and others as two piece, but Mehrasa Gheibi gives the following description of the garments:

"It is my opinion that Achaemenid robes were likely made from a single rectangular cloth, sewn closed at the sides except for an underarm opening. The sleeves and pleats were shaped by structured stitching and tucking, creating layered folds similar to those seen in stone reliefs. Horizontal pleats on the chest do not indicate a two-piece garment but rather a continuous design with added front panels."[9]

Despite the existence of their own distinct costume, the Persians frequently wore Median attire.[10]

Headwear

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a. Twisted headband, b. Fluted mitra, c. Kolah namadi
Relief of Darius I in pleated robes and a smooth mitra

The seven types of Achaemenid court headwear mentioned are as follows: Type I.1 was a simple, twisted headband worn by the royal guard; Type I.2 was a circlet or fillet, commonly worn by Elamites and many Persian soldiers; Type I.3 was a wider fillet used by soldiers, royal attendants, and mythical heroes, often decorated with floral embroidery or metal appliqué; Type I.4 was a long scarf of wool, linen, or silk wrapped tightly around the head or neck, with only the facial center exposed (bashliq/tiara/kyrbasia). This type appears on figures like the royal towel bearer and various stairway attendants; Type I.5 was a plain cylindrical hat worn by royalty and featured in the "Treasury relief"; Types I.6 and I.7 were shorter and taller fluted hats respectively, strongly associated with Persian dignitaries. Both I.6 and I.7 were types of the mītra, a term used by Herodotus.[7]

The primary royal crown of the Achaemenid Empire was the mitra, a tall, cylindrical or fluted symbolic headdress often referred to as a “semi-crown” or “helmet-crown.” It resembled a stylized cylinder with 18 to 22 vertical flutings or ribs and was secured with a cloth band (ribbon or turban) tied around it. Though appearing ceremonial, this structure was tightly bound and firmly seated on the wearer’s head. In artistic depictions, especially on reliefs from Persepolis—the cylinder is often shown worn by the Shah and high-ranking individuals during official ceremonies. In wartime, a sturdier version was fashioned for the king, functioning like a helmet or protective headgear, distinguishing it from general noble headwear. This war-version was likely made of bronze or hard leather, showing durability and symbolic authority.[8]

Women's clothing

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The primary garment of women, similar to men, was the Persian robe. The robe could vary in form: some versions lacked diagonal front folds, while others had broad panels falling behind the back like a cape, possibly gathered or tied. Hair was typically worn long and fastened with a wide barrette, while headgear ranged from decorated tiaras and diadems to bordered veils and serrated headscarves, though full veiling was uncommon among noblewomen. Accessories included neckbands, bracelets, penannular earrings, and, in domestic contexts, perfume birds and incense burners. Decorative elements such as dog-tooth borders, gold embroidery, spangles, and stitched trims embellished the robes, and silk or light wool, dyed in Mesopotamian fashion, was likely used. While the robe could be adapted for different occasions, its consistent structural complexity and ornamental detail made it a clear marker of class, hierarchy, and ceremonial function within the empire's upper stratum, distinguishing noblewomen from flower-carrying attendants or handmaidens, who wore simpler versions and often lacked ornate tiaras.[11]

  • Impression of Achaemenid seal depicting Persian women
    Impression of Achaemenid seal depicting Persian women
  • Depiction of Persian women on saddle cloth
    Depiction of Persian women on saddle cloth
  • Achaemenid women in Persepolis - wearing pleated robes and short mitras
    Achaemenid women in Persepolis - wearing pleated robes and short mitras
  • Sketch of Xerxes depicted wearing the pleated robe and a mitra - Persepolis
    Sketch of Xerxes depicted wearing the pleated robe and a mitra - Persepolis
  • A modern two-piece dress inspired by the Achaemenid style - Queen Farrah Pahlavi
    A modern two-piece dress inspired by the Achaemenid style - Queen Farrah Pahlavi

Medes

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See also: Kandys

The candys also written as kandys was a Median qabā[12] and a ceremonial Persian outer garment, likely derived from Old Persian kandu- (“to cover”), with related forms in Elamite, and Parthian languages. It was a full-length cloak with long, often unused sleeves, draped over the shoulders rather than worn like a fitted coat. Made from fine materials, sometimes edged with fur, and dyed in purples or mixed royal colors (red, blue, white), the candys signified noble or royal status.[13]

sketch of a kandys
Darius III depicted wearing a kandys and upright kurpasa

Although in its earliest known form in 4th–5th century BC it was shaped more like a cloak which could have decorative sleeves, only used formal settings.[14] The Persian candys were often purple color, or made from leather and skins.[15] Encyclopædia Iranica has stated many scholars believe candys, along with a long-sleeved tunic called a sárapis and long trousers called anaxyrides, formed the riding dress of the Median people; which was portrayed in the Persepolis reliefs.[15] It's possible it was an article of clothing associated with nobility.[16]

Headwear

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The various Median forms of headwear largely consisted of simple bands, a variety of bashliq and tiara (kurpasa), and felt caps which were also popular among the satraps[17] and often part of the infantry uniform.[18]

Bashliq (Persian: باشلیق/باشلِق, Turkish: Başlık), which was also prevalent among various Turkic peoples, often overlaps and is confused with the kurpasa used in the Achaemenid period.[19] It was later adopted and modified in Europe as the Phrygian cap.[20] At the top it usually had a sharp and tall tip shaped like a conical sack bent backward or forward. On the back, it had a short tail-like extension that covered the neck, and on both sides it included additional flaps for covering the ears. This cap, during travel, horseback riding, or speaking with the king, was used (to prevent the breath from being exhaled toward the king's face).[6][21] Sometimes with a band wrapped around the head which fell down the back[20] Studies in Turkology and Iranology suggest continuity in the use of the bashliq between the ancient Iranian and Turkic peoples.[22] The bashliq was widespread from Tibet to the Hellenistic world, the Middle East, and various nomadic peoples.[20]

The kurpāsa,[23] kídaris, tiara, kítaris (Lat. cidaris), or kyrbasía[24][25] was a head covering made from felt, leather, silk, or soft fabric.[26] The kurpasa looked like a hood and was often lined with fine animal fur inside. Most people wore it flat, either folded into three bumps at the front or hanging down on the sides. Only the Great King could wear his kurpasa standing upright, probably supported from the inside.[27][28] The earflaps were tied under the chin or hung loose, and the bonnet was encircled with a diadem.[29] Additionally, the Magi wore a loose cloth over the nose and mouth to prevent their breath from defiling the sacred fire.[30] the kurpasa is variously identified by scholars as a satrapal headdress or Persian cap.[31]

  • Portrait of Bagadates, ruler of Persis, wearing a combination of the kurpasa and Hellenic diadem (left) and a kandys (right)
    Portrait of Bagadates, ruler of Persis, wearing a combination of the kurpasa and Hellenic diadem (left) and a kandys (right)
  • Arsaces I of Parthia wearing a bashliq
    Arsaces I of Parthia wearing a bashliq
  • A relief in Persepolis depicting guests wearing bashliq (sides) and kurpasa (middle)
    A relief in Persepolis depicting guests wearing bashliq (sides) and kurpasa (middle)
  • 3 types of Saka bashliqs depicted in Xerxes's relief
    3 types of Saka bashliqs depicted in Xerxes's relief
  • An ornate, tall Saka bashliq -golden man
    An ornate, tall Saka bashliq -golden man
  • Alexander Sarcophagus depicting Achaemenid soldiers wearing the kurpasa
    Alexander Sarcophagus depicting Achaemenid soldiers wearing the kurpasa
  • A kurpasa-wearing Magi carrying a barsom - Oxus treasure
    A kurpasa-wearing Magi carrying a barsom - Oxus treasure
  • Coin of Vahbarz, wearing a kurpasa
    Coin of Vahbarz, wearing a kurpasa
  • Depiction of a Persian (right) on a Greek vase - wearing a bashliq
    Depiction of a Persian (right) on a Greek vase - wearing a bashliq
  • An Achaemenid satrap wearing the kurpasa
    An Achaemenid satrap wearing the kurpasa
Persians (right) depicted in sarapis and shalvar
Depiction of Medes in Persepolis - Wearing shalvar, sarapis, and kolah namadi

Bodywear

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The Median dress consisted of a plain, unpleated tunic that was closed in the front and had no seams, reaching as far as the knees, with tight sleeves, a simple hem, and no collar; it was pulled over the head to wear.[6] Later, a more detailed version made of cloth became common. This new style had long sleeves, a wide V-shaped collar, and is clearly seen in artworks like the Alexander Mosaic and Sarcophagus. The belt sat high on the waist, and the lower part of the tunic could be tucked into it during battle. Some Greek vases also show Persians wearing sleeveless versions of the tunic.[32] The tunic is referred to as chitón by the Greeks and the Persian equivalent for the term is believed to be sárapis.[33] Possibly that as early as the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the migrating Iranians brought with them the sarapis that had been developed in Eurasia, where the climate fluctuated sharply and life depended on cattle raising and the use of the horse, particularly in fighting[34]

Shalvar (Persian: شلوار, Old Persian: šaravāra) is a form of trousers introduced from Persia to other Middle Eastern regions.[35][36] The Greeks often referred to the colorful trousers of the various Iranian peoples as anaxyrides.[37] The Median trousers are long, and the width of each leg tapers gradually as it approaches the ankle, becoming narrower and more fitted. A thin strip of cloth is wrapped around the lower part of the trousers, allowing the fabric to be gathered and secured. This strip is tied around each leg, on either side of the trousers, providing a complete fit below the knee and preventing creases or folds. This style is similar to what is seen in modern tapered trousers. The simplicity of this design, combined with the use of belts or sashes, results in a very soft and finely tailored garment. These trousers typically feature a waistband twice the width of the belt.[8][38]

Pants

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A wide belt was often worn called Kamarband, from which English gets the word "cummerbund".[39]

Chaqchur

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Tonoka leather pants, at a zoorkhaneh athletic ritual (c.1840 – c.1933)
Tonoka leather pants, at a zoorkhaneh athletic ritual (c. 1840 – c. 1933)

Chaqchur (footed trousers, or čāqčūr), were long pants often in thin black fabric, primarily worn by women, but in later history, they were worn by men.[38] Chaqchur came in two distinct styles, the first style was loose wide-legged trousers with a waistband, ending in stockings (a balloon leg), which covers the body from waist to toes; the second style was similar to a stirrup legging.[38] By the late Qajar dynasty (early 20th century), chaqchur were no longer in style.

Tonoka

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Tonoka (tonbān) was a leather pant worn for traditional wrestling and athletics, the style is tight at the waist and just below the knees, and sometimes it had decorative details. The tonoka could have details such as small mirrors sewn over the kneecaps (to display the pant wearer's confidence in their win), or embroidered loops of rough cotton cord to chafe the opponent.[38]

Qabā

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A clerical Iranian qabā
Examples of Sassanid-period qabā
Painting of Nader Shah Afshar with a red qabā - It depicts a red panel sliding from the left side into the right buttoned flap of the qabā

The Qabā (Persian: قَبا) is a traditional Iranian outer garment historically worn by men across different social classes and professions, from Shahs and nobles to clerics, merchants, and farmers.[40][41] Structurally, it is a long tunic-like coat, open at the front, worn over a shirt and trousers, and sometimes secured with buttons running down the front.[42] Some qabās have hidden buttons under the arm, and others use a belt or sash for fastening. The garment’s sleeves can vary in length and width, and it is often equipped with large inner pockets, which served both practical and ceremonial purposes, such as washing the hem for ritual purity.[43]

Qabā fabrics varied according to climate and social rank. In winter, thicker and warmer materials like wool were common, while lighter fabrics like cotton and linen were used in summer.[44] Wealthier individuals often wore qabās made of silk, velvet, or fine wool. There were seasonal variations too: light “spring” or “summer” qabās (Bahāri, Persian: بهاری) and heavier “autumn” or “winter” ones (Zemestāni, Persian: زمستانی). Fabrics such as Atlas, Zari, and imported European materials were used for elite garments.[45] The colors of qabās also reflected status. Black or dark hues were common among clerics, while affluent men often chose bright colors like green, blue, or gold. Among the general populace, subdued tones were prevalent for practicality. The qabā was a unifying garment in Iranian culture, worn by virtually all men regardless of class, though with significant variation in fabric quality and decoration. It served as a marker of respectability and was often bestowed as a Khil'at to dignitaries, officials, or as diplomatic gifts.[46] In certain variations of the buttoned qabā from the late Safavid to early Qajar period, an additional panel is visible extending beneath the buttoned side, creating the appearance of a secondary layer integrated under the garment.[47]

Labbādeh

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A Labbādeh worn over a simple shirt

The Labbādeh (Persian: لَبّاده) is a type of qabā, historically signifying a higher social rank and often associated with horsemen and shepherds. It is considered a prestigious garment that, unlike more common outerwear, conveys elegance and formality. A refined variant of the labbādeh is the Tabbādeh (Persian: تَبَاده), which is designed to be worn over the qabā.[48] The tabbādeh features a circular collar that completely covers the shoulders and chest, creating a layered and sophisticated appearance. Unlike the qabā, which is more comfortable for daily use, the tabbādeh is tighter and requires careful tailoring, making it less practical but visually more striking. It has long sleeves and two vertical slits that serve as hidden pockets, but the lower part lacks buttons and is made as a single piece of fabric.[49] Today, the tabbādeh is primarily worn by Shi’a clerics, religious students in seminaries, and some political elites, serving as a marker of scholarly and spiritual prestige. In cities like Qom, Najaf, Mashhad, and Isfahan, specialized tailors craft these garments, often requiring high skill due to the garment’s intricate structure.[50]

  • Man from Bushehr - Simple un-sashed qabā
    Man from Bushehr - Simple un-sashed qabā
  • Man from Bushehr - Simple, sashed qabā
    Man from Bushehr - Simple, sashed qabā
  • Mohammad Shah Qajar - Sashed black qabā with jeweled armlets
    Mohammad Shah Qajar - Sashed black qabā with jeweled armlets
  • Asker khan, Persian ambassador - A golden qabā with open buttons, sashed at the waist
    Asker khan, Persian ambassador - A golden qabā with open buttons, sashed at the waist
  • Court scene of Shah Abbas II - Examples of buttoned qabā
    Court scene of Shah Abbas II - Examples of buttoned qabā
  • Karim Khan-e Zand - Sashed qabā with open golden buttons
    Karim Khan-e Zand - Sashed qabā with open golden buttons
  • Young Persian woman, Isfahan, circa 1670-1700 - Example of a qabā with dolman-like decorations on the buttons
    Young Persian woman, Isfahan, circa 1670-1700 - Example of a qabā with dolman-like decorations on the buttons
  • 14th century qabā with a sash
    14th century qabā with a sash
  • Statue of Parthian commander Surena wearing a qabā
    Statue of Parthian commander Surena wearing a qabā
  • A Persian Achaemenid warrior, shown wearing a qabā, engaged in combat with a Greek
    A Persian Achaemenid warrior, shown wearing a qabā, engaged in combat with a Greek
  • Parthian relief depicting a man wearing qabā
    Parthian relief depicting a man wearing qabā

Radā

[edit]

Radā (Persian: رَدا) is traditionally referring to any upper-body covering such as a cloak, mantle, or robe, typically worn over other clothing like the qabā. In historical Persian sources, it was also used as a general term for garments that drape over the shoulders and cover the body completely, similar to a chādor.[51][52]

Mirza Abu'l Hassan Khan wearing a red abā over his qabā - painting by William Beechey (1753-1839)

Abā

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Shia clergy, dressed in brown, grey and black abās
Naqd Ali Beg (1626), wearing a brown abā on his shoulders

Abā is a long and loose radā woven of pre-fluffed wool with an open, unbuttoned front,[53] draped over the shoulders, either sleeveless or with wide, false sleeves that do not cover the arms. In the Safavid period, it was worn in the form of a short-sleeved cloak by the Sufis and ascetics. Its material varied depending on the season and the wearer’s status; it could be made of fine, lightweight fabrics or of coarse wool and hair.[54] Historically it was a common attire in Iranian society but today the Abā is a symbol of the Shia clergy.[55]

Shah Ismail I, depicted wearing a kaftan draped halfway over a qabā, with one arm out of the sleeve in the relaxed courtly fashion.

Mohsen Sadrolashraf, one of the prime ministers during Reza Shah’s reign, writes in his memoirs that before the Pahlavi era, half of the people of Iran wore the abā, either regularly or occasionally (for example, for prayer).[56] However, during the reign of Reza Shah, a law was passed that prohibited the general public from using the abā and ammāmeh, restricting their use exclusively to the clergy. According to the law enacted by the National Consultative Assembly, wearing the abā and ammāmeh was permitted only for mujtahids, prayer leaders (pishnamazan), seminary students (talabeh), and religious instructors.[57]

Kaftan

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Shah Sultan Huseyn wearing a fur-lined kaftan
Kay Kavus is captured by the Div-e Sepid, depicted in a red kaftan, it's front fully fastened with buttons.

Kaftān (Arabic: قفطان, qafṭān; Turkish: Kaftan; Persian: کفتان) sometimes referred to as Jobbeh, Radā or Bālāpush, was a long, ornate, unlined upper garment made of fabric, regarded as a robe of honor[58] (not to be confused with Khaftān (Persian: خفتان), used to denote a tunic-like gambeson)[59] Its value was often indicated by the colors, decorative ribbons, and buttons it featured. Many kaftans crafted from luxurious textiles were adorned with gold-threaded bands and cords along the front and sleeves.[60] Believed to have originated in ancient Mesopotamia.[61] It was characterized as a long robe that reached the calves or sometimes fell just below the knee, open at the front and, with sleeves that were slightly shortened at the wrists or even cut back to the mid-arm, sometimes sleeveless[62] and buttons running down the front. kaftans featured diverse sleeve styles to display luxury and craftsmanship. The Ottoman sultan and his court wore kaftans with short sleeves over long-sleeved entari (qabā) to highlight contrasting fabrics. Basic kaftans had short, kimono-style sleeves, but unlike kimonos, the sleeves and bodice were separate pieces joined with straight seams. Gusset-like patterns curved the underarm, and short sleeves were often curved at the hem, allowing easier elbow movement and revealing the rich inner linings for added visual appeal.[63]

Open at the front with side vents, the kaftan showcased ornate linings and facings made from bright fabrics like atlas and taffeta. Collarless versions had bias binding at the neck, while seams were finished with tack and overcast stitching. Decorations included silk cords, and applique techniques, with even unlined kaftans adorned by trims to cover seams and enhance their luxurious appearance.[63]

Jobbeh

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Portrait of Farrokh Khān Amin od-Dowleh's sons - All wearing the jobbeh
Mohammad Ali Shah wearing a jobbeh with his Kiani crown

Jobbeh (Persian: جُبه) was a very loose, baggy radā with an open front, and long, wide sleeves that tightened from the elbow down, and was considered as a luxury garment.[64][65] The material usually camel wool or a mixture of thread and silk, and in the Qajar period paisley-patterned termeh was used for the jobbeh of nobility.[66] Fur-edged cuffs and elaborate decorative bands were characteristic of the jobbeh, giving the arms a formal, luxurious finish. Its structure includes richly adorned front flaps running vertically and horizontally, embroidered with gold thread bands and metallic trims. The lower flaps of the robe are further embellished with chains and pearls[67][68]

jobbeh were given to certain high ranking officials as signifiers of their rank[69] Expensive jobbeh were used as khil'at.[70][71][72] In the Qajar era, the jobbeh became a key outer garment for ministers, clerics, judges, and high-ranking officials, often made from luxurious imported fabrics and especially prominent during Naser al-Din Shah’s reign. In Kerman, the local wool jobbehs gained fame, with some pieces valued at thousands of pounds. Jobbehs were often passed down as heirlooms, with fine termeh varieties reserved for senior family members, and were classified into rich designs with elaborate floral patterns, mid-grade ones with simpler motifs, and plain examples for lower ranks. Observers described courtyards filled with men in magnificent jobbehs, fur-lined shawls, and tall kolah namadis.[73]

Painting by Saniolmolk, depicting Qajar dignitaries wearing elaborate jobbeh and kolah namadi

Sardāri

[edit]

Sardāri (Persian: سرداری) refers to a radā with a pleated waistband that Qajar men wore over other garments. From the mid-Qajar era (particularly during and after Naser al-Din Shah’s reign), men’s overgarment (bālāpush) included a coat-like garment that extended from the shoulders to below the knees.[74] Over time, the outer robes of men in the late Qajar period became shorter and looser, resulting in a style where the waist area featured multiple pleats. These pleats were often made from luxurious materials such as silk, cashmere, and fine wool. Wealthy men favored Sardari garments with elaborate and colorful floral and paisley patterns, while poorer men wore simpler versions using cheaper materials like chintz and linen.[75][76] The sardari became a popular bālāpush (overgarment) worn by all social classes, especially princes, military officers, and younger officials. Initially made from luxurious materials like wool, shawl fabrics, Kerman’s fine termeh, and silks. However unlike the richly patterned qaba or jobbeh, sardaris graduated towards a typically plain, factory-made style, devoid of intricate designs, embodying a modernized, understated elegance.[77] This shift accelerated as plain, factory-made fabrics with muted tones, especially black, became prevalent among urban elites, physicians, and even Naser al-Din Shah’s own entourage.[78] Sardaris in somber colors like dark gray or navy reflected the spread of European taste. Shahs and princes increasingly adopted these simplified sardaris for court and travel, and eventually the style trickled down to merchants and commoners. By the late Qajar era, sardaris were so common that even provincial governors, tribal leaders, and rural notables wore them in place of the once-dominant qaba and jobbeh.[79][80]

Sattar Khan and Baqer Khan wearing variations of sardari
Muzaffar Mirza and his attendants photographed with the two men on the left wearing the sardari
Naser al-Din Shah's attendants wearing sardari

Coats and cloaks

[edit]

Chador, hijab, and jilbab

[edit]
See also: Chador, Hijab, and Jilbāb

Some scholars argue that it was Cyrus the Great who, more than a thousand years before Islam, began the practice of covering women to protect their chastity. The theory holds that the veil then passed from the Achaemenids to the Seleucids and was in turn adopted by the Byzantines, and finally transformed into the hijab by the Arabs, who spread it all over the Muslim world.[81]

The Safavid dynasty centralized Iran and declared Shia Islam as the official religion, which led to the widespread adoption of hijab by women in the country. Shia Islam served as a tool for the Safavids to consolidate the diverse ethnic groups under their authority and to differentiate themselves from their Sunni Muslim adversaries.[82] Covering the hair has thus long been customary for women in Iran. Iranians generally refer to jilbab by the Persian appellation chador.

  • 18th century silk coat
    18th century silk coat

Footwear

[edit]
Galesh zanooneh
Galesh zanooneh

Galesh

[edit]
Main article: Galesh

Galesh (Persian: گالش) are an ancient style of handwoven shoes, that were once found in Northern Iran.[83]

Persian heeled boots

[edit]

Ancient Persians used to wear shagreen horse leather high-heeled boots.[84] These heeled boots were created for a strong grip in the stirrup while horse riding, and they were not used for walking.[84] The Achaemenid Empire cavalry had used these boots, and they can be traced as far back as the 10th century.[84][85]

Qajar Period

[edit]

The Taj

[edit]
Taj-e Kiani at the treasury of national Jewels - topped by a Jaghe

During the early years of the Qajar dynasty, fashion was distinguished by the lavish use of gems and pearls to adorn clothing. A notable example is the Kiani Crown, a tall velvet headdress extensively decorated with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls.[86]  which was utilized not just by the King, but by the foremost Princes of the realm. This type of crown consists of four parts, arranged from bottom to top: the headband section, the pearl section, the battlements, and at the very top, a red velvet cap. The second section features 1,800 pearls forming a white background for green emeralds and red rubies. Excluding the Jeghe of the crown, the height of the cap is 32 centimeters and its width is 19.5 centimeters.[87]

The Jeghe

[edit]

Jiqeh, Jeghe, Parak, Til, named after Paisley is an ornamental piece made of feathers and jewels that was used atop the crowns, hats, and turbans of Iranian Shahs and several other rulers of the Islamic world, including the sultans of the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluks of Egypt.[88][89] The Jeghe, featuring the motif of a bent cypress (a symbol of humility), represents Iran and the Iranian people.[90] Jeghe was heavily used in earlier Qajar headwear for both men and women.

Attire

[edit]

In the early Qajar era, royal attire reflected a fascination with luxury and ornamentation, as seen in Fath-Ali Shah’s long embroidered shirts and jewel-encrusted sleeves that blended traditional Persian motifs with European influences. The introduction of photography and detailed paintings from the period reveal courtly fashions emphasizing layered robes, tall and extensive use of silk and gold-thread embroidery. Princes and nobles often wore paisley Jobbeh coats particularly towards the end of the period, sometimes with simple geometric patterns, golden trims, and elaborate borders. These garments, richly documented in works like Sani al-Mulk’s Dār al-Salṭaneh murals and preserved in Golestan Palace collections, showcase a transition from Safavid-inspired grandeur to more restrained yet symbolic Qajar designs, featuring repeating cypress motifs and creative tailoring innovations like concealed pockets and artistic linings[91]

Fath-Ali Shah of Persia wearing a Qajar crown, red qabā, jeweled armlets, with pearl-adorned forearms and shoulders.

In 1807, James Morier provided a detailed account of Persian men’s clothing, introducing terms such as zīr-jāma for undergarments, tekmeh (or tokma) for buttons, oymeh—possibly derived from the Turkic oyma, referring to a type of embroidery—and baroonee (bārānī). Around a decade later, Robert Ker Porter commented on the opulent, layered appearance of Qajar court attire, which closely resembled Safavid fashions. While Porter asserted that the Qajars typically wore darker colors, evidence from paintings and surviving garments suggests otherwise. Characteristic features of men’s dress included a long robe reaching the ankles, worn over a short-sleeved waistcoat and beneath a three-quarter-length jacket. Kashmiri brocades and their local imitations remained popular for waistbands and for wrapping around the kolāh. Jeweled armbands (bāzū-band) were a notable accessory, and the shah along with his nobles favored full beards and moustaches, carefully dyed black for effect.[92] By the end of the Qajar dynasty, the main elements of men’s bālāpūsh (outerwear) can be defined as the qabā, belt or sash, shawl, sardāri, kolijeh, jobbeh, and abā.[93]

Women's clothing

[edit]
Court musician playing the Kamancheh
Tabib Kashani surrounded by women wearing the Chador
Abbas Mirza wearing a Kolāh

Women’s domestic clothing retained traditional forms like the arkhaligh worn over a shirt, often richly decorated but lacking buttons to fasten the front, leaving it open. Gradual Western influence, especially under Nasir al-Din Shah, introduced new styles as European fashions entered royal harems and urban elite circles. Long stockings, European shoes, and shorter layered dresses replaced older garments, while social rank continued to shape fabric quality and ornamentation. Indoors, women wore light cotton or silk shirts with layered outerwear, while outdoors they wore long Chadors, Shawls, and face veils, with elite women favoring colored and embroidered fabrics. By the late Qajar period, foreign styles and tighter clothing like trousers and short jackets became common among urban women.[94]

Mozaffar al-Din Shah and his attendants, all wearing Kolāhs

Kolāh

[edit]

And important aspect of Qajar clothing was the Kolāh. Also known as the "Kolāh-e Namadi" is a traditional felt hat made from wool—typically sheep, camel, or goat hair—compressed with heat and water. The wool is combined with binders like starch, oil, grease, eggs, or soap, then molded into shapes reflecting the regional style.[95]

In the Qajar era, Iranian men—from the Shah to commoners—wore tall black hats made from the fine skins of goats and lambs, with the Shah’s hat crafted from newborn lambskin for superior quality. These Kolāh replaced earlier turbans as the standard headgear, a change tied to Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar’s dress code aimed at fostering national unity and reducing class distinctions. Variations in material quality reflected social rank, while elite men distinguished themselves with embroidered Kashmir shawls wrapped around their hats.[96] In Old Iran and Tehran, Ja’far Shahri notes that headwear was highly significant in Iranian culture, with going bareheaded seen as disrespectful. Those unable to afford a hat would cover their heads with a cloth or shawl, and expressions like “I swear by my hat” reflected its symbolic importance.[97][98]

Over time due to Western influences the heigh of the Kolāh was reduced, standing no taller than 15–20 cm, despite resistance from the general population who saw the longer Kolāh as a sign of rank and social status.[99]

Westernization of Iranian attire

[edit]
Modernize uniforms of Qajar armed forces

The first reforms occurred in military attire under orders from Abbas Mirza, the Qajar crown prince, as part of efforts to modernize Iran’s armed forces by adopting Western military advancements. Influenced by European models, he introduced new uniforms that were simpler and more practical than the traditional long garments previously worn. These included a white cotton tunic and loose trousers inspired by Russian and Ottoman styles, although initially these changes faced resistance. Critics accused Abbas Mirza of undermining Iranian customs by favoring European coats, boots, and even chairs, which were seen as inappropriate for Persian nobility.[100]

Modernized Persian army under Abbas Mirza

Growing contact with the West exposed Iranians to new fashions, highlighting stark contrasts between traditional Iranian attire and European styles. Over time, European influences grew, leading to debates among officials and intellectuals over adopting Western-style uniforms for comfort, practicality, and economic reasons. Abbas Mirza’s military reforms encouraged simple, functional dress, but conservatives resisted, seeing the abandonment of traditional garments as dishonorable. Under Nasir al-Din Shah, the kolāh nezami (military cap) made of Bukhara lambskin became common for soldiers, and reforms introduced fitted coats and trousers, replacing flowing robes and turbans. By the late Qajar era, Western-style short coats and trousers became widespread, especially among the urban elite and military, while rural and tribal populations retained older styles.[100]

the ulama and Shi’a clerical class retained their traditional attire as a marker of religious and social distinction. The garments of the clergy—primarily the qabā, abā, and ammama—carried deep symbolic meaning, signifying piety, continuity, and authority inherited from pre-Islamic and Islamic traditions. These garments became especially significant amidst the domination of urban life by western fashion, further setting the clergy apart. The maintenance of this attire, even as modernizing forces pushed for uniformity in dress, reinforced the clergy’s role as guardians of tradition and allowed them to resist cultural assimilation. Over time, this distinct dress developed into a codified uniform for Shi’a clerics.[101]

  • Ayatollah Khomeini wearing a qabā under his black abā
    Ayatollah Khomeini wearing a qabā under his black abā
  • Mullahs in a Friday prayer, wearing traditional clothing
    Mullahs in a Friday prayer, wearing traditional clothing
  • A cleric wearing a qabā
    A cleric wearing a qabā

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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