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Hoysala kingdom
950–1346
Greatest extent of the Hoysala kingdom, c.1050- c.1355
Greatest extent of the Hoysala kingdom, c.1050- c.1355
Capital
Common languagesKannada
Sanskrit
Religion
Jainism
Hinduism
GovernmentMonarchy
King 
• 950-960
Arekalla
• 1343–1346
Veera Ballala IV
History 
• Established
950
• Disestablished
1346
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Western Chalukya Empire
Vijayanagara Empire
Part of a series on the
History of Karnataka
Topics
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Categories

The Hoysala Kingdom was a prominent South Indian dynasty that ruled most of what is now Karnataka, as well as parts of Tamil Nadu and southwestern Telangana, between the 11th and 14th centuries CE.[1] The capital was initially located at Belur and was later moved to Halebidu.[2]

The origins of the Hoysala dynasty are traced to the Malnad region of Karnataka. Initially, the Hoysalas served as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana. The dynasty gained prominence under King Vishnuvardhana particularly after the defeat of the Cholas in the Battle of Talakad, which consolidated Hoysala authority in the Deccan.[3]Taking advantage of the conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Kalachuris of Kalyani in the 12th century, the Hoysalas expanded their domain, eventually controlling large parts of Karnataka, northwestern Tamil Nadu, and western Andhra Pradesh (now Telangana).[4]

The Hoysala period was a significant era for the development of South Indian art, architecture, and literature. Over 100 temples from this period survive, showcasing intricate Hoysala architecture.[5] Well-known temples which exhibit what the historian Sailendra Sen has called "an amazing display of sculptural exuberance" include the Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple in Somanathapura.[6] These three temples were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2023.[7] The period witnessed the flourish of Kannada literature with notable contributions from Jain and Brahmin poets.[8]

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]

Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadu by referring to the Yadava vamsa (or clan) as the "Hoysala vamsa". But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India.[9]

Legendary beginnings

[edit]
photograph of Sala and the tiger, Belur, Karnataka
Sala fighting a tiger, the emblem of the Hoysala Empire, at the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur

Kannada folklore tells a legend of a young man, Sala (also known as Poysala), who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by killing a tiger (sometimes described as a lion) that they encountered whilst in a forest, at "Sosevur" located at present-day Angadi Village in Chikkamagaluru district, At the time, it was a prominent Jain religious centre and is traditionally regarded as the original home of the Hoysala family.[10][11] The word strike translates to "hoy" in Old Kannada, hence the name 'Hoy-sala'.[12] The legend purporting to show how Sala became the founder of the Hoysala dynasty is shown in the Belur inscription of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, dated c. 1117,[13] but owing to several inconsistencies in the story it remains in the realm of folklore.[14] Vishnuvardhana achieved a victory over the Cholas at Talakadu in 1116,[15] and the legend may have arisen or gained popularity after this event, as the Hoysala emblem depicts Sala fighting a tiger, the tiger being the emblem of the Cholas.[16]

Establishment of the Kingdom

[edit]

The earliest record of the Hoysala lineage dates to c. 950 CE, naming Arekalla as a local chieftain. He was succeeded by Maruga, Nripa Kama I (c. 976 CE), and Munda (1006–1026 CE). Nripa Kama I is described with the title "Permanadi" indicating an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty.[17] The Hoysalas emerged from the Malnad region in the Western Ghats as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, gradually expanding their territory during the conflict between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and eventually gaining independence as the Chalukya power declined.[18]

Wars with the Cholas and Chalukyas

[edit]

During the reign of King Vishnuvardhana (r. c. 1108–1152 CE), the Hoysalas fought decisive campaigns against the Cholas. Chola incursions into Gangavadi reportedly included the destruction of Jain Basadis around Talakadu. Vishnuvardhana’s general Ganggaraj led the counter-offensive defeating the Chola general Adiyamma near Talakadu and recovering lost territory. After this victory Vishnuvardhana earned the title "Talakadugonda" ("Conqueror of Talakadu"), while inscriptions highlighted Gangaraja’s leading role in these campaigns.[19]

King Vishnuvardhana fought the Western (Kalyani) Chalukyas in Nolambavadi asserting his independence from them. In a second Chola campaign, the Hoysala armies chased the Chola forces to Vellore which was deep inside Tamil territory. For these victories, Vishnuvardhana made significant land grants to his general at Kambadahalli which would become an important center for Jainism.[20]These campaigns weakened Chola influence and consolidated Hoysala power in the Deccan, and historians credit the successes of king Vishnuvardhana as pivotal in establishing Hoysala independence and the military leadership of his general Gangaraj as a major factor in these victories.[21][22]

Vishnuvardhana's grandson Veera Ballala II further strengthened the kingdom and expanded its influence. He declared war against the Yadavas and defeated the Kadambas. He declared independence in 1193.[23] During the establishment of the Hoysala Kingdom, the Deccan Plateau saw a four-way struggle for hegemony between four dynasties: the Hoysalas, the Pandyans, the Kakatiyas, and the Seunas.[24] In 1217, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya after they invaded the Chola Kingdom, and helped to restore the Chola king.[23]

Increased influence and later eclipse

[edit]

The Hoysalas extended their foothold in modern-day Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and taking control over the southern Deccan region.[25] Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific Mamadi (uncle) from the Pandyas and Cholas.[26] From 1220 to 1245 the dynasty's hegemony increased southwards to cover both the Chola and Pandya Kingdoms.[26] Toward the end of the 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country which had been lost during a Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the Kingdom.[27]

In the early part of the 14th century, major political changes took place in the Deccan region during a period when large areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alauddin Khalji, the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to control southern India. In 1311 he sent his commander Malik Kafur on an expedition to plunder Devagiri, the capital city of the Seuna Kingdom[28] By 1318 the Seuna Kingdom had been subjugated. The Hoysala capital Halebidu was besieged and sacked twice, in 1311 and 1327.[29] By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny Kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu Kingdom who resisted the invading armies.[30] Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and the Madurai Sultanate to the south.[31] Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343,[27] and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala Kingdom were merged with the areas administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra River region.[32][33] This new Hindu Kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire.[34]

Economy

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Main article: Economy of the Hoysala Empire
class=notpageimage|
Location of the Hoysala Empire and main contemporary South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[35][36]

The empire consisted of the valleys of three main rivers, the Krishna, the Tungabhadra, and the Kaveri, whose systems facilitated the growth of crops and generated an agricultural output that was immense.[37] The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn were staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad).[38] As agricultural land was scarce, forests, waste land and previously unfarmed land was reclaimed, and new settlements were established. Large areas of forest were cleared to bring lands under cultivation and build villages.[39] The Hoysala kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to the heads of families, who then became landlords (gavunda) to tenants who worked on the land and in the forests. The praja gavunda ("the gavunda of the people") had a lower status than the wealthier prabhu gavunda ("of the lord") [40]

The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy.[38][39] Land was assessed as being wet land, dry land or garden land for the purposes of taxation, and judged according to the quality of the soil.[41] Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records.[42] The Hoysalas encouraged people to move to newly-built villages by means of land grants and tax concessions.[41]

Taxes, collected in the form of cash, from trade and commerce generated considerable wealth for the Hoysala state, and enabled it to buy armaments, elephants, horses and precious goods. The state and the merchant class became interdependent, with some more prosperous merchants being known as Rajasresthigal (royal merchants), officially recognised on account of their wealth. They were seen as puramulasthamba ('the pillars of the towns').[43] The increased prosperity and prestige of some merchants encouraged them to open markets and weekly fairs,[44] with some becoming Pattanaswami (town administrators), who had the authority to collect tolls on goods that entered the town. [45] Merchants engaged in minting activities, sometimes producing the coins and supplying them to the state.[45]

Tanks (large reservoirs) were created at the expense of the state.[38] The Hoysalas put resources into repairing breached tanks and broken sluices, easily damaged by heavy rainfall.[41] They collected taxes on irrigation systems, canals and wells, all of which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers.[46] Repairs were undertaken by the landlords as well as their workers; such repairs were considered to be a duty and a pious act.[41]

Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian Kingdoms was a flourishing business on the western seaboard.[47] Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas Kingdoms.[42] South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments to China, Dhofar, Aden, and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia).[48]

Administration

[edit]
Main article: Hoysala administration
Garuda pillar hero stone (virgal) at Halebidu with old Kannada inscription of about 1220 CE.

In its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory.[49] Several of their major feudatories were Gavundas of the peasant extraction.[50] Records show the names of many high-ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari. Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari.[49]

The Kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha, listed in descending order of geographical size.[51] Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire.[52]

An elite and well-trained force of bodyguards known as Garudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death.[53] Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II.[54][better source needed]

King Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends "victor at Nolambavadi" (Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "chief of the Malepas" (Maleparolganda), "Brave of Malepa" (malapavira) in Hoysala style Kannada script.[55][56] Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a tenth of the Honnu, Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga. There were other coins called Bele and Kani.[52]

Capitals

[edit]

The earliest Hoysala capital was at Sosevur (also called Sasakapura or Sosavurpattana), located at present-day Angadi in Chikkamagaluru district. At the time, it was a prominent Jain religious centre and is traditionally regarded as the original home of the Hoysala family.[57] Sosevur served as the capital from around 1026 to 1048 CE. Even after the capital was moved to Belur, Sosevur remained an important commercial, administrative, and Jain religious centre.[58] In 1048, the Hoysala capital was moved to Belur. Several factors made Belur an attractive site as a capital: first, its location on the Yagachi River provided a good supply of water year-round. Second, its location in hilly terrain made it easily defended. Third, it lay on an important trade route, helping both commerce and communications. However, Belur was barely capital for a decade before it was moved again.: 88–90 

The third and longest-lasting Hoysala capital was Dwarasamudra (also called Dorasamudra or Dvaravatipur), at the present-day site of Halebid. It became capital in 1062 and remained capital until the dynasty's end. The reason for the shift is unknown, but it may have been for administrative convenience. Canals were dug connecting Dwarasamudra with Belur and bringing water from the Yagachi to Dwarasamudra. Two trade routes passed through the city, and scores of temples were built in it. The city declined in the 14th century.: 89–90 

Culture

[edit]

Religion

[edit]
Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura, built 1268 CE.

The Hoysala rulers were originally patrons of Jainism.[57] In the early period of the dynasty, Hoysala kings and ministers supported Jain institutions, temples, and scholars.[58][59]King Vishnuvardhana began his reign as a Jain when he was known as Bitti Deva and continued to patronize Jain institutions before his conversion. He granted lands to his general Ganggaraj who supported Jain temples at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli thus expanding Jain religious infrastructure in the region.[60][61]

Vishnuvardhana later converted to Vaishnavism under the influence of the philosopher Ramanujacharya.[62] though his queen Shantala Devi remained a devout Jain throughout her life.[63] She spent her later years at Shravanabelagola and, after the death of her son, took the Jain vow of "Sallekhana" (Jain ritual fasting to death) at Shivagange in 1131 CE. An inscription from 1131 CE at Chandragiri Hill in Shravanabelagola records her death through "Sallekhana" in the presence of her guru Prabhachandra Siddhanta Deva, king Vishnuvardhana and her mother Machikabbe. This inscription praises her piety, details her family lineage, and mentions grants made to Jain temples.[64] General Ganggaraj is also recorded as having retired to Shravanabelagola after his military career, continuing his patronage of Jain institutions.[65]

Several prominent Jain, Brahmin and Shaiva poets and scholars flourished under the Hoysalas,[66][67][68][69] and important Jain and Hindu monuments were built during this era including shrines and other structures at Shravanabelagola.[70][71]

Later Hoysala rulers increasingly supported Vaishnavism. Kings such as Narasimha I and Veera Ballala II are known for their patronage of major Hindu temples and monasteries. However, some successors continued to maintain connections with Jain traditions. Inscriptions suggest that king Narasimha III worshiped Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, and his spiritual advisor was Meghanandi Siddhanta, a Digambara Jain monk.[72] However, the Jain influence declined significantly in Karnataka in the later years.[73]

Society

[edit]
Main article: Society of the Hoysala Empire

Hoysala society was marked by a highly stratified social order, religious pluralism, and rich cultural development. The empire was predominantly agrarian, with villages serving as the basic unit of administration and economy. Land grants to temples, monasteries, and scholars were common, helping sustain religious institutions and local elites.[74]

Urban centers such as Halebidu,Shravanbelgola, Belur, and Somanathapura became important hubs of trade, craft production, and temple-building activity. The Hoysalas supported merchant guilds (nagaram), artisans, and sculptors, contributing to the development of the distinctive Hoysala architectural style known for its intricate ornamentation.[75]Caste divisions were significant, with Brahmins receiving patronage for education and ritual services, while other occupational groups included agriculturists, artisans, merchants, and laborers. Inscriptions reveal a degree of social mobility through state service, military merit, and religious endowments. Religiously, society was diverse, with Jainism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and local traditions coexisting. Hoysala rulers were notable patrons of Jainism, granting lands and building basadis at Shravanabelagola, Halebidu, and elsewhere throughout their domains. Later kings, particularly after Vishnuvardhana’s conversion under Ramanujacharya’s influence, also supported Vaishnavism, leading to the construction of temples such as Chennakeshava at Belur and Hoysaleswara at Halebidu.[76]

Society during this period became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administration, as shown in records describing Queen Umadevi’s management of Halebidu during Veera Ballala II’s military campaigns. She is also credited with suppressing rebellious feudatories.[77] Women also participated in the fine arts, with Queen Shantala Devi renowned for her skill in dance and music. Shantala Devi remained a devout Jain and is said to have performed the Jain rite of Sallekhana at Shivagange.[78]This pluralistic, temple-centered society encouraged art, literature, and learning, leaving behind a legacy of sculpture, inscriptions, and Kannada literary works that flourished under royal patronage. After the 12th century, Vachana Sahitya poets and Lingayat mystics such as Akka Mahadevi also contributed to the bhakti movement.[79] Temple dancers (Devadasis) were common, often well-educated and accomplished in the arts, which gave them comparatively more freedom than other women. However, social norms remained hierarchical, with the caste system conspicuously present.[80]

Trade on the west coast brought Arabs, Jews, Persians, Europeans, Chinese, and people from the Malay Peninsula to South India. The empire’s expansion encouraged migration, introducing new cultures and skills. Towns (Pattana or Pattanam) and marketplaces (Nagara or Nagaram) served as the nuclei of urban life. Shravanabelagola, for example, developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century into an important trading center by the 12th century with the arrival of wealthy merchants. Belur also grew into a regal city with the construction of the Chennakesava Temple under Vishnuvardhana.[81]Large temples supported by royal patronage served not only religious but also social, economic, and judicial functions, employing artisans, sculptors, priests, and administrators. Temple building was a shared activity across religions and regions, with merchants and landlords financing temples to serve fiscal, political, cultural, and religious needs of agrarian communities, helping sustain local economies and social structures.[82]

Literature

[edit]
Main article: Hoysala literature
Old Kannada inscription dated to 1182 of King Veera Ballala II at Akkana Basadi, Shravanabelagola.

The Hoysala period was marked by significant literary activity in Kannada, with notable contributions from Jain and Brahmin writers. Janna the court poet of Veera Ballala II gained renown for his Yashodhara Charite, a classic of Kannada literature.[83] Keshiraja, the Kannada gramarian and author of Shabdamanidarpana also flourished under Hoysala patronage.[84]

Jain centers at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli, where astronomy and mathematics were taught, were important centers of learning. Jain mathematicians such as Rajaditya wrote seminal works on arithmetic and geometry including Vyavaharaganita, and Mahaviracharya's Ganitasarasangraha became a standard mathematical text.[85] Inscriptions attest to Jain Saints maintaining centers for astronomical and mathematical studies under Hoysala patronage.[86]

The period also saw innovation in Kannada poetic forms. The Sangatya metre became popular in compositions, while the Shatpadi (six-line), Tripadi (three-line) metres, and Ragale (lyrical blank verse) became fashionable, allowing greater variety and expressiveness in verse.[87] Jain works continued to extol the virtues of Jain Tirthankaras, preserving religious and ethical themes.

Brahminical writers also contributed significantly. Rudrabhatta, patronized by Chandramouli, a minister of Veera Ballala II, wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style, narrating the life of Krishna up to his battle with Banasura, drawing on the Vishnu Purana and similar traditions.[88] Harihara (also known as Harisvara), a poet patronized by King Narasimha I, wrote Girijakalyana in the Champu style, recounting the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.[89]A native of Halebidu from a family of accountants ("Karanikas"), Harihara wrote over one hundred ragales in praise of Virupaksha (a form of Shiva). Raghavanka introduced the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature with his Harishchandra Kavya, which is considered a classic despite occasional departures from strict grammatical rules.[90]

Historians note that the period saw a particularly strong Jain contribution to Kannada literature. The historian R. Narasimhacharya notes that more Jains wrote in Kannada during this period than in any other Dravidian language.[91]

Architecture

[edit]
Main article: Hoysala architecture
"Darpanasundari" (lady with a mirror), one of the many madanakai decorating the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur.

The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the Kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,[92][93] shows distinct Dravidian influences.[94] The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida,[95] and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.[96]

A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship.[97] The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than to a tower form and height.[98] The stellate design of the base of the shrine with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly succession of decorated tiers.[note 1][100] Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique.[101] The Hoysala artists achieved this with the use of Soapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building and sculptural material.[102][103]

The Chennakesava Temple at Belur (1117),[104][105] the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (1121),[106][107] the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279),[108][109] the temples at Arasikere (1220),[110][111] Amruthapura (1196),[112][113] Belavadi (1200),[114][115] Nuggehalli (1246),[116][117] Hosaholalu (1250),[118][119] Aralaguppe (1250),[120] Korvangla (1173),[121][122] Haranhalli (1235),[15] Mosale[123] and Basaralu (1234)[124] are some of the notable examples of Hoysala art. While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and lesser known temples.[125] The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings) that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in the traditional direction of circumambulation (pradakshina). The temple of Halebidu has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture[126] and an important milestone in Indian architecture.[99] The temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura were designated as UNESCO world heritage sites in 2023.[7]

  • Akkana Basadi, Shravanabelagola
    Akkana Basadi, Shravanabelagola
  • Vesara style Vimana of the Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Nuggehalli (1246 CE)
    Vesara style Vimana of the Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Nuggehalli (1246 CE)
  • Stellate Vimana, at Ishvara Temple (Arasikere) built in 1220 CE
    Stellate Vimana, at Ishvara Temple (Arasikere) built in 1220 CE
  • Jain temples, Halebidu
    Jain temples, Halebidu
  • Twin temples (1200 CE) at Mosale, the Nageshvara (near) and Chennakeshava temple (far)
    Twin temples (1200 CE) at Mosale, the Nageshvara (near) and Chennakeshava temple (far)
  • Hoysala Kingdom
    Jain statue, Dwarasamudra
  • A sculpture of a dancer on pillar bracket, 1117 CE, (Shilabaalika or Madanika) in the Chennakeshava temple at Belur
    A sculpture of a dancer on pillar bracket, 1117 CE, (Shilabaalika or Madanika) in the Chennakeshava temple at Belur
  • Standing Vishnu as Keshava, 1st quarter of the 12th century, Hoysala period, probably Belur, Karnataka, India
    Standing Vishnu as Keshava, 1st quarter of the 12th century, Hoysala period, probably Belur, Karnataka, India
  • Jain, Hoysala Monuments
    Statue Of Parshwanath, Hoysala Monuments

Language

[edit]
Old Kannada inscription (1270 CE) of King Narasimha III at Keshava Temple, Somanathapura.

The Hoysala rulers strongly supported the Kannada language, as seen in their inscriptions often composed in polished, poetic Kannada with decorative floral designs in the margins.[127] According to historian Sheldon Pollock, the Hoysala era marked the near-complete displacement of Sanskrit in favor of Kannada as the primary courtly and administrative language.[128]

Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks, while schools of higher learning were called ghatikas. Temples often served as local schools where learned Brahmins taught in Sanskrit. The local Kannada language, however, was widely used in the devotional movements that emphasized an intimate experience of the divine. Literary works were written on palm leaves bound together. While earlier centuries had seen Jain works dominate Kannada literature, the Hoysala period also witnessed the rise of Hindu and early Brahminical works.[129]

Sanskrit continued to be used for poetry, grammar, lexicons, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries, prose fiction, and drama.[130] Inscriptions on stone (shilashasana) and copper plates (tamarashasana) were mostly in Kannada, though some were in Sanskrit or bilingual. Typically, the titles, genealogies, origin myths, and benedictions appeared in Sanskrit, while the terms of grants—including land boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations, taxes, and witnesses—were in Kannada to ensure clarity for local communities.[131]

List of Monarchs

[edit]
Regnal names Reign
Sala (Hoysala Dynasty)
Arekalla 950-960
Maruga 960-976
Nripa Kama I 976-1006
Munda (Hoysala) 1006-1026
Nripa Kama II 1026–1047
Vinayaditya 1047–1098
Ereyanga 1098–1102
Veera Ballala I 1102–1108
Vishnuvardhana 1108–1152
Narasimha I 1152–1173
Veera Ballala II 1173–1220
Narasimha II 1220–1234
Someshwara 1234–1263
Narasimha III 1263–1292
Veera Ballala III 1292–1342/43
Veera Ballala IV 1342/43-1346

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ This is a Hoysala innovation.[99]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955), pp. 220–221.
  2. ^ Foekema, Gerard (1996), p. 19.
  3. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), pp. 101–102.
  4. ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955), pp. 222–223.
  5. ^ Foekema, Gerard (1996), p. 22.
  6. ^ Sen 2013, pp. 58–60.
  7. ^ a b UNESCO World Heritage Convention. "Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas". UNESCO. © UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2023. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  8. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), pp. 100–104.
  9. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 122.
  10. ^ Settar, S. (1986), pp. 18–21.
  11. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 123.
  12. ^ Menon 2013, p. 128.
  13. ^ Van der Geer 2008, p. 357.
  14. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, p. 150.
  15. ^ a b Foekema 1996, p. 67.
  16. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 123.
  17. ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 126–127
  18. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p. 359.
  19. ^ Settar, S. (1986). Shravanabelagola: A Study in the Context of Jainism and the History of Karnataka. Shravanabelagola: Sri Shravana Belgola Digambara Jain Mutt, pp. 24–25.
  20. ^ Settar, S. (1986), pp. 24–25.
  21. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p.359, p. 361.
  22. ^ Settar, S. (1989). Hoysala Heritage. Dharwad: Karnataka University, pp. 74–75.
  23. ^ a b Sen 1999, p. 499.
  24. ^ Sastri 1955, p. 192.
  25. ^ Keay 2000, p. 252.
  26. ^ a b Sastri 1955, p. 206.
  27. ^ a b Sen 1999, p. 500.
  28. ^ Sastri 1955, pp. 206–208.
  29. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 129.
  30. ^ Sastri 1955, pp. 212–214.
  31. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 130:"The greatest hero in the dark political atmosphere of the south.".
  32. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, p. 156.
  33. ^ Kamath 2001, pp. 159–160: While many theories exist about the origin of Harihara I and his brothers, collectively known as the Sangama brothers, it is well accepted that they administered the northern territories of the Hoysala empire in the 1336–1343 time either as Hoysala commanders or with autonomous powers..
  34. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 161: A collaboration between the waning Hoysala kingdom and the emerging Hindu Vijayanagara empire is proven by inscriptions. The queen of Veera Ballala III, Krishnayitayi, made a grant to the Sringeri monastery on the same day as the founder of the Vijayanagara empire, Harihara I in 1346. The Sringeri monastic order was patronised by both Hoysala and Vijayanagara empires..
  35. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 37, 147. ISBN 0226742210. Archived from the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
  36. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (25 July 2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765. Penguin UK. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-14-196655-7.
  37. ^ Kumar 2006, p. 217.
  38. ^ a b c Kamath 2001, p. 132.
  39. ^ a b Kumar 2006, p. 218.
  40. ^ Thapar 2002, pp. 378–379.
  41. ^ a b c d Kumar 2006, p. 219.
  42. ^ a b Thapar 2002, p. 382.
  43. ^ Nayaka 2003, p. 238.
  44. ^ Nayaka 2003, p. 240.
  45. ^ a b Nayaka 2003, p. 242.
  46. ^ Kumar 2006, pp. 218–219.
  47. ^ Thapar 2002, p. 383:Marco Polo who claims to have travelled in India at this time wrote of a monopoly in horse trading by the Arabs and merchants of South India. Imported horses became an expensive commodity because horse breeding was never successful in India, perhaps due to the different climatic, soil and pastoral conditions..
  48. ^ Thapar 2002, p. 383.
  49. ^ a b Kamath 2001, pp. 130–131.
  50. ^ Seshan & Kumbhojkar 2018, pp. 45, 46.
  51. ^ Kamath 2001, pp. 130–131: It is not clear which among Vishaya and Nadu was bigger in area and that a Nadu was under the supervision of the commander (Dandanayaka).
  52. ^ a b Kamath 2001, p. 131.
  53. ^ Shadow like, they moved closely with the king, lived near him and disappeared upon the death of their master – S. Settar (12–25 April 2003). "Hoysala Heritage". Frontline. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  54. ^ Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India, pp.388-389, Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Asian Educational Services, 1911, Madras, ISBN 81-206-1850-5
  55. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 12, 125: Many coins with Kannada legends have been discovered from the rule of the Hoysalas..
  56. ^ Govindaraya Prabhu, S (1 November 2001). "Indian coins-Dynasties of South-Hoysalas". Prabhu's Web Page on Indian Coinage. Archived from the original on 19 January 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  57. ^ a b Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 125.
  58. ^ a b Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p. 357.
  59. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 73.
  60. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p. 358.
  61. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 74.
  62. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 126.
  63. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 75.
  64. ^ Shravanabelgola: History, Art, Architecture, and Inscriptions (relevant portions on Shantala Devi and Chandragiri inscription).
  65. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 359.
  66. ^ Rice (1921), p. 45
  67. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 16–17
  68. ^ Desai, P.B. (1957). Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs. Sholapur: Jaina Samshodhana Sangha. pp. 70–75.
  69. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 214.
  70. ^ Foekema, Gerard (1996), pp. 14–20.
  71. ^ Settar, S. (1989), pp. 200–220.
  72. ^ Sangave, Vilas Adinath. The Sacred Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa. Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1981.
  73. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 127.
  74. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p. 363.
  75. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 128.
  76. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 80.
  77. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 129.
  78. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 81.
  79. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 18
  80. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 364
  81. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 130.
  82. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), p. 365.
  83. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 15–16
  84. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 82.
  85. ^ Pingree (1981), p. 471
  86. ^ Settar, S. (1989), p. 83.
  87. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 18
  88. ^ Rice (1921), p. 48
  89. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001), p. 131.
  90. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 18–19
  91. ^ Narasimhacharya, R. (1988), pp. 15–16.
  92. ^ Hardy 1995, pp. 215, 243.
  93. ^ Kamath 2001, pp. 115, 118.
  94. ^ Sastri 1955, p. 429.
  95. ^ Hardy 1995, pp. 6–7.
  96. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 134: Hoysala style has negligible influences of the Indo-Aryan style and owing to its many independent features, it qualifies as an independent school of architecture.
  97. ^ Sen 1999, pp. 500–501.
  98. ^ Foekema 1996, pp. 27–28.
  99. ^ a b Kamath 2001, p. 135.
  100. ^ Foekema 1996, pp. 21–22.
  101. ^ Kamath 2001, p 136: "Their sculptured figures, especially the bracket figures, have been objects of praise at the hands of art critics of the whole world. They include Sukhabhasini, Darpanadharini and other damsels in various dancing poses.".
  102. ^ Sastri 1955, p. 428.
  103. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 37.
  104. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 47.
  105. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 325.
  106. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 59.
  107. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 329.
  108. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 87.
  109. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 346.
  110. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 41.
  111. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 321.
  112. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 37.
  113. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 320.
  114. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 53.
  115. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 324.
  116. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 83.
  117. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 340.
  118. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 71.
  119. ^ Hardy 1995, pp. 330–333.
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  121. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 77.
  122. ^ Hardy 1995, p. 334.
  123. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 81.
  124. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 43.
  125. ^ Foekema 1996, Preface, 47, 59.
  126. ^ Foekema 1996, p. 61.
  127. ^ Settar, S. (1991). Hoysala Heritage. Kannada University, Dharwad. pp. 87–89.
  128. ^ Pollock, Sheldon. (2006), p. 150.
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  130. ^ Sanskrit Reference [152]
  131. ^ Saletore, B.A. (1934). Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire, Vol. 1. B.G. Paul & Co. pp. 97–98.

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