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John, King of Denmark

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For other uses, see John of Denmark (disambiguation).
John
Sculpture from altarpiece by Claus Berg (c. 1530), St. Canute's Cathedral, Odense
King of Denmark
(more...)
Reign21 May 1481 – 20 February 1513
Coronation18 May 1483
Church of Our Lady, Copenhagen
PredecessorChristian I
SuccessorChristian II
King of Norway
(more...)
Reign1483 – 20 February 1513
Coronation20 July 1483
Nidaros Cathedral
PredecessorChristian I
SuccessorChristian II
King of Sweden
(more...)
Reign6 October 1497 – August 1501
Coronation26 November 1497, Stockholm
PredecessorKarl Knutsson
SuccessorChristian II
Born2 February 1455
Aalborghus Castle, Aalborg
Died20 February 1513(1513-02-20) (aged 58)
Aalborghus Castle, Aalborg
Burial
St. Canute's Cathedral, Odense (from 1807)
Spouse
​
(m. 1478)​
Issue
among others...		Christian II
Elizabeth, Electress of Brandenburg
Jacob the Dacian (probably)
HouseOldenburg
FatherChristian I of Denmark
MotherDorothea of Brandenburg
ReligionRoman Catholic

John or Hans[1] (né Johannes;[2] 2 February 1455 – 20 February 1513)[3] was a Scandinavian monarch who ruled under the Kalmar Union. He was King of Denmark from 1481 to 1513, King of Norway from 1483 to 1513, and King of Sweden (where he has also been called Johan II[4]) from 1497 to 1501. Additionally, from 1482 to 1513, he held the titles of Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, which he governed jointly with his brother, Frederick.

The three most important political goals of King John were the restoration of the Kalmar Union, reduction of the dominance of the Hanseatic League, and the building of a strong Danish royal power.

Early life and accession

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John's parents, King Christian and Queen Dorothea

John was born on 2 February 1455, probably at Aalborg in Northern Jutland. He was the third son of King Christian I of Denmark and Dorothea of Brandenburg, but the eldest to survive infancy. Dorothea was the daughter of Margrave John of Brandenburg.[5]

Negotiations on the union

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Seal of King John of Denmark, Norway and Sweden

Christian had his son John proclaimed as future ruler in the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.[6] However, a rebellion in 1464 forced Christian to relinquish the Swedish crown. Christian attempted to retake Sweden in 1470, but his forces were defeated by Sten Sture the Elder at the Battle of Brunkeberg in October 1471.[7][8]

Upon King Christian's death in May 1481, there was no dispute over the order of succession in the kingdoms, but the accession nevertheless proved difficult. Negotiations on the terms of John's accession started between the councils of the realms and an interregnum ensued.[3] The Oldenburgs and the Danish council wanted to reintegrate Sweden into the union but ultimately had to settle for a limited union between Denmark and Norway.[6]

In Denmark, John was unchallenged, but the Norwegian council, dissatisfied with King Christian's previous policies, sought stronger guarantees before accepting John's rule. Union-critical factions within Norway also reached out to Sweden, and on 1 February 1482, the two kingdoms concluded a treaty in Oslo, agreeing not to proceed with the forthcoming royal election without consulting the other.[4] In response, the Danish leadership tried to undermine this alliance by initiating separate negotiations with each kingdom.[6] In Denmark, John was acclaimed in the spring of 1482.[1]

A meeting between the councils of Denmark, Sweden and Norway was appointed for 13 January 1483 at Halmstad to work out John's håndfæstning, or coronation charter. When the Swedish Council failed to turn up at the meeting, the Norwegian and Danish councils proceeded to issue a joint declaration known as the Halmstad Recess. This document outlined the conditions for John's rule, strengthening the authority of the councils and affirming that the union was a personal union of three independent kingdoms.[9] It was hoped that Sweden would later accept the same terms and thereby acknowledge John as king.[7] John was crowned King of Denmark in Copenhagen on 18 May 1483, and King of Norway in Trondheim on 20 July.[10]

As negotiations with the Swedish Council continued, a separate agreement known as the Kalmar Recess was drafted on 9 September 1483. Intended to complement the Halmstad Recess, it included additional guarantees aimed at limiting royal authority and safeguarding the privileges of the Swedish Council of the Realm. Among the Swedish demands was the restoration of Gotland, a condition that proved unacceptable to King John. The negotiations ultimately broke down in 1484 over the Gotland question, and John was not crowned king of Sweden until 1497. During this period, Sweden was ruled by Regent Sten Sture and the Council of the Realm.[11][12][13]

Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein

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John had also been proclaimed the future ruler of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein during Christian I's reign. However, following the birth of his younger brother Frederick in 1471, the terms of the Privilege of Ribe allowed the duchies to elect a duke from among the sons of the late duke. Many nobles in Schleswig and Holstein favored Frederick, but John successfully argued that both royal brothers should be elected as co-dukes. Although they were initially meant to govern jointly, the duchies were divided between them in 1490 when Frederick came of age. Feeling disadvantaged with regard to the royal inheritance, Frederick later asserted claims to a share in the kingdoms as well. In response, the Diet at Kalundborg in 1494 rejected Frederick's demands and declared Denmark to be an indivisible elective monarchy.[3]

Early years of the reign

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During the first years of his rule John carried out a balancing policy. By diplomatic means he tried to weaken the position of the Swedish regent Sten Sture, and he also sought new allies—he was the first Danish king to establish political cooperation with Russia. After the 1493 treaty, Ivan III of Russia imprisoned all Hanseatic merchants trading in Novgorod and instigated the Russo-Swedish War (1496–1499). The Hanseatic cities were also troubled by a secret war by Danish privateers. At that time the position of the Hansabund was slowly but steadily declining because of changes in trade routes and the growing opposition against the Hanseatic League in the Northern European naval states.

John's domestic policies were marked by economic support of the Danish merchants and by the widespread use of commoners as officials or even as councillors, something which angered the nobility. The most important of his initiatives was perhaps establishing a permanent Danish navy, one which came to play a role during his later years.

In the meantime, John had initially approved to join a crusade plan as presented in Rome on 25 March 1490, in which Nordic soldiers would be part of a coalition of armies fighting the Turks of the Ottoman Empire; however, he sent a legate with a letter to Julius II to explain that he had many conflicts at home, which would prevent him from implementing such endeavor.[14]

Military campaigns

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In June 1495, John set sail with a fleet for Kalmar, Sweden. Along with the Danish and Norwegian Councils, he expected to meet with the Swedish Council. His goal was the reunification of the Nordic region under his rule: a renewed Kalmar Union.[15][16] Along the way from Copenhagen to Kalmar, John's flagship, Gribshunden, suffered an explosion and sank at anchor near the town of Ronneby. John was not aboard at the time; he survived and continued on to Kalmar. However, Sten Sture repeatedly delayed his own arrival, and John finally abandoned the summit in August to return exhausted to Copenhagen.[17][18] Direct diplomacy had failed, so John turned to other means to achieve his ambition.

On 6 October 1497, John conquered Sweden during a short and effective military campaign, defeating Sten Sture at the Battle of Rotebro after having undermined his position by winning over most of the Swedish nobility. Sten surrendered to King John in Stockholm and was reconciled with him. John was crowned King of Sweden, and Sten was given the highest position of authority in Sweden below the King.

In 1500, John made an attempt at conquering Dithmarschen (in today's Schleswig-Holstein), an area which the kings of Denmark had long viewed as belonging to their realm, but which was in reality an independent peasant republic under the loose overlordship of the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen.[19] By mid-January 1500 John hired the Black Guard of ruthless and violent Dutch and East Frisian mercenaries, commanded by Thomas Slentz [de], prior operating for Magnus, vicegerent in the Land of Hadeln.[20][21]

King John's gold coin minted in Stockholm in 1497

John guaranteed for its safe conduct first southeastwards via Lunenburg-Cellean Winsen upon Luhe and Hoopte, crossing the Elbe by Zollenspieker Ferry to the Hamburg-Lübeckian condominial Bergedorf and Vierlande.[22] From there the Black Guard headed northwestwards again, through Holstein towards Ditmarsh. Together with his brother Frederick, John then carried out a large-scale campaign with the Black Guard, but the Ditmarsians under Wulf Isebrand [de]'s command caught most of the Guard in a trap at the Battle of Hemmingstedt after having opened the dykes of the low-land area and flooded the narrow main road. Thus John's attempt to subject the Ditmarsian free peasants to feudalism ended for time being.

The defeat in the Battle of Hemmingstedt on 17 February 1500 hurt John's prestige and in 1501, Sweden renounced him as king. John fought an increasingly more bitter war against Sten Sture and his successor Svante Nilsson, and this conflict meant frictions with both the Danish nobility and the Hanseatic cities, especially Lübeck. In 1509, under pressure from a trade blockade imposed with imperial backing, Swedish envoys signed a treaty in Copenhagen that acknowledged John’s claim and promised annual tribute. However, the treaty was never implemented, and he was never allowed into Stockholm as long as he lived. Lübeck soon turned against Denmark, allied with Sweden, and helped break the blockade.[4]

Meanwhile, resistance in Norway was effectively suppressed by John's son, Prince Christian (later King Christian II), who was the viceroy of Norway from 1506 until he became king in 1513. Between 1510 and 1512, the king waged a final war with both Sweden and Lübeck in which Denmark was at first very pressed but, with the help of the Scottish Barton brothers,[23] partly turned the tables with a naval offensive. The conflict ended with a peace that dealt Lübeck both political and economic setbacks. In early 1513, a summit was scheduled to take place in Copenhagen, where Sweden would have been forced to choose between accepting John or his son Christian as king, or agreeing to pay annual tribute. However, John died before the meeting could occur.[4]

Death and legacy

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Face detail on a wall monument by Claus Berg near King John's grave
Altarpiece by Claus Berg, now in St. Canute's Cathedral.

In 1513, King John died at Aalborghus Castle a short time after being thrown from his horse. King John was buried in the church of the Franciscan friary in Odense. Queen Christina, who lived the latter part of her life in a nunnery in Odense, commissioned the famous German sculptor Claus Berg to create a magnificent burial chapel, where both she and her husband were laid to rest after her death in 1521. The late Gothic altarpiece carved by Berg between 1515 and 1525 is one of Denmark's national treasures. Each of the three sections is intricately carved and gilded. It survived the iconoclastic fervour of the Protestant Reformation perhaps because of its connection with the royal burials. The son of King John and Queen Christina, King Christian II, with his wife Isabella of Austria, was also interred in the royal family chapel. In 1807, the former Franciscan church was demolished, and Berg's altarpiece and six royal bodies were transferred to St. Canute's Cathedral, also in Odense.

The 32-year-old heir, Christian II of Denmark assumed the throne but was deposed in 1523. John's bloodline eventually returned to the Danish and Norwegian thrones in the person of Christian IV of Denmark, the great-great-grandson of his daughter, Electress Elisabeth.[24]

In his own age, and partly to posterity, John has often appeared a "commoner's king", a jolly and plain man with a folksy manner. Behind the surface, however, he seems to have been a hard realist and a zealous political calculator. In many ways he is a Scandinavian parallel of Louis XI of France and Henry VII of England.[citation needed]

Full title

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John's full title as King of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway was: King of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Wends and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn and Dithmarschen, Count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst[25]

Issue

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In 1478, John married Christina of Saxony, daughter of Elector Ernst of Saxony and Elisabeth of Bavaria.[5]

The Danish geneological tradition mentions five children of John and Christina:[26]

Name Birth Death Notes
Hans 1479 1480 died as a child
Ernst 1480 1480 died as a child
Christian II 1 July 1481 25 January 1559 King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Had issue.
Elizabeth 24 June 1485 10 June 1555 Married Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg in 1502. Had issue.
Francis 15 July 1497 1 April 1511

The Oldenburgisch Chronicon from 1599 cites sources mentioning additional sons named Johan and Jacob. Jørgen Nybo Rasmussen has argued that the latter can be identified as Jacobus de Dacia (1484–1566), a Franciscan friar who served as a missionary in Mexico.[27]

During the last decade of his life, John had a relationship with Edele Jernskjæg (died 1512).[28]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Allmand 2015, p. 694.
  2. ^ Caspar Paludan-Müller De første Konger af den Oldenburgske slægt Reitzels, Köpenhamn 1874 p. 131
  3. ^ a b c "Hans (konge af Danmark og Norge samt Sverige)". Den Store Danske (in Danish). 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-06-16.
  4. ^ a b c d Gillingstam, Hans (1969–1971). "Hans". Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon. Retrieved 2024-09-13.
  5. ^ a b Lagerqvist, Lars O. (1995). Kings and rulers of Sweden : a pocket encyclopedia. Stockholm: Vincent Publications. p. 32. ISBN 978-91-87064-15-9.
  6. ^ a b c Helle 2003, p. 759.
  7. ^ a b Haug, Eldbjørg; Mardal, Magnus A.; Petersen, Leif Inge Ree (2024-09-19), "Hans – av Danmark, Norge og Sverige", Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian), retrieved 2025-07-19
  8. ^ Kumlien, Kjell (1975–1977). "Kristian I". Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon. Retrieved 2025-07-19.
  9. ^ Salvesen, Helge (2024-11-26), "Halmstad-recessen", Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian), retrieved 2025-07-20
  10. ^ Allmand 2015, p. 695.
  11. ^ Salvesen, Helge (2024-11-26), "Kalmar-recessen", Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian), retrieved 2025-07-20
  12. ^ Suvanto, Seppo (2000-06-23). "Hannu". Suomen kansallisbiografia [Finnish National Biography] (via Biografiasampo). Retrieved 2025-07-20.
  13. ^ Helle 2003, p. 760.
  14. ^ Møller Jensen 2007, p. 150.
  15. ^ Gustafsson, Harald (2006-12-06). "A State that Failed?: On the Union of Kalmar, Especially its Dissolution". Scandinavian Journal of History. 31 (3–4): 205–220. doi:10.1080/03468750600930720. ISSN 0346-8755.
  16. ^ Ingvardson, Gitte T.; Müter, Dirk; Foley, Brendan P. (2022-06-01). "Purse of medieval silver coins from royal shipwreck revealed by X-ray microscale Computed Tomography (µCT) scanning". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 43 103468. Bibcode:2022JArSR..43j3468I. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103468. ISSN 2352-409X.
  17. ^ Foley, Brendan (2024-01-31). "Interim Report on Gribshunden (1495) Excavations: 2019–2021". Acta Archaeologica. 94 (1): 132–145. doi:10.1163/16000390-09401052. ISSN 0065-101X.
  18. ^ Christensen, William (1912). Missiver fra Kongerne Christiern I's og Hans's tid (in Danish). Gad - Selskabet for Udgivelse af Kilder til Dansk Historie.
  19. ^ Elke Freifrau von Boeselager, "Das Land Hadeln bis zum Beginn der frühen Neuzeit", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser: 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.), Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ISBN 978-3-9801919-7-5), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; 978-3-9801919-8-2), vol. III 'Neuzeit (2008; ISBN 978-3-9801919-9-9)', (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 321–388, here p. 332.
  20. ^ Karl Ernst Hermann Krause (1881). "Johann III., Erzbischof von Bremen". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 14. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 183–185., here p. 184.
  21. ^ Michael Schütz, "Die Konsolidierung des Erzstiftes unter Johann Rode", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser: 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.), Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ISBN 978-3-9801919-7-5), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; 978-3-9801919-8-2), vol. III 'Neuzeit (2008; ISBN 978-3-9801919-9-9)', (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 263–278, here p. 267.
  22. ^ Karl Ernst Hermann Krause (1881). "Johann III., Erzbischof von Bremen". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 14. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 183–185., here p. 185.
  23. ^ Hannay, Mackie, Spilman, ed., Letters of James IV, SHS (1953), p.xlii
  24. ^ Hans · Konge af Danmark · Norge fra 1481–1513 og Sverige 1497–1501 (Danske Konger) Archived 1 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ Kong Hans (Diplomatarium Norvegicum)
  26. ^ Rasmussen, Jørgen Nybo (1986). Broder Jakob den Danske, kong Christian II's yngre broder (PDF) (in Danish). Odense: Odense universitetsforlag. p. 11. ISBN 978-87-7492-583-5.
  27. ^ Rasmussen, Jørgen Nybo (1986). Broder Jakob den Danske, kong Christian II's yngre broder (in Danish). Odense: Odense universitetsforlag. p. 24. ISBN 978-87-7492-583-5.
  28. ^ "Edele Jernskæg". Dansk Biografisk Leksikon (in Danish). 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2024-09-13.

Bibliography

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to John of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
John, King of Denmark
Born: 2 February 1455 Died: 22 July 1513
Regnal titles
Preceded by Duke of Holstein and Schleswig
1482–1513
with Frederick I (1482–1513) 		Succeeded by
King of Denmark
1481–1513 		Succeeded by
Vacant
Title last held by
Christian I 		King of Norway
1483–1513
Vacant
Title last held by
Charles VIII 		King of Sweden
1497–1501 		Vacant
Title next held by
Christian II
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