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The extinction of African languages due to colonialism

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Extinction of African languages due to colonialism
Decline of indigenous African languages
Multiple (e.g., Yaakunte, ǀXam, Elmolo)
Native toAffected countries include Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, Cameroon, Angola, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, and others
RegionSub-Saharan Africa and North Africa
ExtinctHundreds of languages severely endangered or extinct (see list below)
Latin, Arabic, Ge'ez, Ajami, and indigenous scripts
Official status
Regulated byUNESCO, PanSALB, SADiLaR, African Union, local language boards
Language codes
ISO 639-3–

The extinction of African languages due to colonialism is the gradual disappearance of indigenous African tongues under the pressure of European colonial rule and its legacy. Africa is home to one of the greatest linguistic diversities in the world, with estimates ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 languages spoken across the continent.[1] However, UNESCO now records roughly 2,500 endangered languages worldwide, with nearly 428 considered threatened in Africa alone, and warns that up to 10% of African languages may vanish within a century.[2]

European powers tended to promote only their own languages (and a few dominant African lingua francas) in administration, education and media.[3][4] Over subsequent decades, this created a lasting hierarchy of prestige in which English, French or Portuguese dominate, leaving local languages sidelined. UNESCO notes that fewer than 20% of pupils in Francophone Africa are taught in their mother tongue, a factor limiting educational attainment.[1]

Colonial-era language policies

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European colonial regimes imposed systematic language policies that favoured their own languages. Missionary schools in the 19th century often taught literacy in local vernaculars to aid conversion.[3] However, colonial states soon took control: by the early 20th century governments were legislating in favour of European languages. For example, in French West Africa a 1905 law separated church and state and effectively banned schooling in African languages (mandating French as the sole medium).[5] In British colonies education was more decentralised, but English was introduced early as a subject and promoted as key to advancement. In 1927 the British Colonial Office’s Advisory Committee on Native Education explicitly recommended using indigenous African languages as medium of instruction in the first years of primary school.[6][7]

By mid-century most colonial administrations required proficiency in the colonial language. Swahili and Hausa were standardised and used widely in East and West Africa (facilitating indirect rule), but hundreds of smaller tongues were ignored.[8] After World War II and into the 1950s, nationalist movements pressed for mother-tongue education, but the reality remained that English, French or Portuguese dominated schooling and official life. At independence (1950s–60s), newly independent states often retained the colonial language as official (e.g. English in Nigeria, French in Senegal)[9] while sometimes adding one or two local languages. In some places (like Tanzania under Julius Nyerere) African languages were promoted;[10] elsewhere (as in much of francophone Africa) indigenous languages received little official support.

Post-independence constitutions gradually recognised African languages. For example, South Africa’s 1996 constitution granted official status to eleven indigenous languages alongside English and Afrikaans.[11] Kenya’s 2010 constitution made Swahili the national language and directed the state to “promote and protect the diversity of language” and the development of indigenous tongues.[12] Nigeria’s 1979 and 1999 constitutions recognise Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as national languages (used in parliament alongside English),[13][14] but English remains the sole language of government and education at higher levels. Internationally, bodies like UNESCO have highlighted the crisis: UNESCO warns that half of today’s languages may be “extinct or seriously endangered by 2100,” and it now promotes integrating African languages into schools and digital media.[15]

Major African language families

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Africa’s languages fall into several large families and isolates.[16] The largest family is Niger–Congo (especially the Bantu branch), with over 1,400 languages spoken by more than 360 million people. These include major languages like Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo, Zulu and Shona, but also many very small Bantu languages.

Afroasiatic languages (Cushitic, Chadic, Semitic, Berber and others) number a few hundred. Large Afroasiatic languages (Arabic, Hausa, Oromo, Amharic, Somali) have tens of millions of speakers, but smaller Cushitic or Chadic tongues can be endangered. For example, in Kenya the Cushitic Yaaku (Yakunte) language has only a handful of elderly speakers left.[17]

Nilo-Saharan languages include some large Nilotic tongues (Dinka, Luo, Maasai), but many are spoken by small communities.

Khoisan families of southern Africa (including Khoe, San and Hadza languages) have only about 35 languages total, spoken by roughly 100,000 people. Many Khoisan languages have only a few hundred speakers at most, making them the most critically endangered group. In South Africa, four Khoisan languages are already extinct and others like N|uu almost vanished.[18]

Country case studies

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Nigeria

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Nigeria is Africa’s most linguistically diverse nation, with over 500 languages. Three major languages – Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba – each have millions of speakers and serve as regional lingua francas. Colonial and post-colonial policy made English the official language nationwide. A 2017 report notes that roughly 400 Nigerian languages are considered endangered, with at least 152 facing extinction risk.[19]

Hundreds of minority tongues in central Nigeria are spoken by only a few hundred people. One source notes that “80% of Nigerians between the ages of 2 and 18 have difficulty speaking their mother tongues.”[20][21] Colonial educational policies replaced local languages with English, and even though Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are recognised, other tongues receive little support.

South Africa

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South Africa’s eleven official languages include nine major indigenous tongues plus English and Afrikaans.[22] Under colonialism and apartheid, only European languages were official.[22] The apartheid-era education system severely restricted African-language instruction. Only with the 1996 constitution did indigenous languages gain formal recognition.[23]

Khoisan languages are most vulnerable. N|uu was thought extinct until a few speakers were rediscovered; only one fluent N|uu speaker remains. Other San languages survive with only a few hundred speakers.[24][25] Even among Bantu languages, smaller tongues lack support. Education and economics favour English.

PanSALB now partners to publish books in marginalised languages as a remedy.[26]

Kenya

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Kenya is home to over 40 indigenous languages. The 2010 constitution names Swahili as the national language and gives Swahili and English official status. In practice, English dominates. UNESCO notes Kenya has the highest number of extinct languages in East Africa.[27]

The Yaaku community of Central Kenya lost its Cushitic language Yakunte due to assimilation.[28] By 2010 only seven elderly people spoke it.[29] A Goethe-Institut report lists Yakunte, Boni, Burji, Ongamo, Suba and others as endangered.[17]

Impact of globalisation and digital technology

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Worldwide media overwhelmingly use global languages like English or French, reinforcing their prestige. UNESCO estimates that half of today’s languages will be extinct or severely endangered by 2100.[15]

However, technology also enables preservation. PanSALB and Wikipedia have organised workshops to create content in African languages. In 2025 a Wikipedia-Africa workshop, called the SWiP Project, in South Africa trained participants to write new articles in isiXhosa, isiZulu and others.[30]

The African Storybook initiative provides free children’s storybooks in dozens of African languages.[31] Mobile apps and platforms like Duolingo now offers Yoruba, Swahili, Zulu and Hausa.[32]

AI and machine translation are also in use. In Mali, AI tools produced over 140 children’s books in Bambara in one year.[33]

Education, legislation and socio-economic pressures

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Language loss is linked to education and socio-economic factors.[34] African children were educated in colonial languages, which became associated with jobs and success. Today most African nations still teach in the former colonial language.[35] UNESCO notes children taught in their mother tongue are 30% more likely to read with comprehension.[1]

Socio-economic pressures also drive shift: families prioritise languages of power (like English or Hausa) over their ancestral tongues. Urbanisation and migration compound this. Many endangered languages now have only elderly speakers.[36] Without institutional support, literacy and intergenerational transmission decline.

Language revival and preservation initiatives

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Efforts include:

  • Digitisation and content. Wikipedia and Wikimedia support content creation in African languages. Social media and radio also aid visibility.
  • Education and publishing. PanSALB and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) support teaching in African languages. South Africa published children’s books in N|uu despite its near extinction.
  • Legal support. Ethiopia, Senegal and Namibia have passed language-support laws. The United Nations declared 2022–2032 the Decade of Indigenous Languages.[37][38]
  • Technology. AI, apps and online dictionaries help with preservation and teaching.

Some of the endangered African languages

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Language Country Status ISO 639‑3
Bom Sierra Leone Severely endangered bmf
Kim Sierra Leone Critically endangered krm
Mani Sierra Leone Critically endangered buy
Korana South Africa Critically endangered kqz
Nǀuu South Africa Critically endangered ngh
Xiri South Africa Critically endangered xii
Akie Tanzania Critically endangered oki
Burunge Tanzania Vulnerable bds
Dhaiso Tanzania Definitely endangered dhs
Gweno Tanzania Critically endangered gwe
Hadza Tanzania Vulnerable hts
Kami Tanzania Severely endangered kcu
Segeju Tanzania Severely endangered seg
Suba Tanzania/Kenya Vulnerable sxb,ssc
Amba Uganda Vulnerable rwm
Ik Uganda Severely endangered ikx
Soo Uganda Critically endangered teu
Zenaga Western Sahara Critically endangered zen

Some of the extinct African languages

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Language Region / Country Language Family Extinct / Last Speaker
Yaakunte (Yaaku) Central Kenya Cushitic ~2010
Elmolo Lake Turkana, Kenya Eastern Nilotic mid‑20th century
Kore Lamu Island, Kenya Maa (Nilotic) mid‑20th century
Lorkoti Rift Valley, Kenya Maa (Nilotic) late 20th century
Kinare Rift Valley, Kenya Nilo‑Saharan 1976
Sogoo (Okiek) Rift Valley, Kenya Nilo‑Saharan 1970s
Omotik Great Rift Valley, Kenya Nilo‑Saharan
Seroa Xhariep, South Africa Tuu (Khoisan) 19th century
ǀXam South Africa & Lesotho Tuu (Khoisan) 1910s
ǁXegwi Lake Chrissie, South Africa Tuu (Khoisan) 1988
ǁKā Vaal River, South Africa Tuu (Khoisan)
ǂUngkue Vaal River, South Africa Tuu (Khoisan)
Kwadi southwest Angola Khoisan (Khoe–Kwadi) ~1960s–1980s
Gafat Ethiopia Afro‑Asiatic (Semitic) 1947
Torona South Kordofan, Sudan Niger–Congo 2014
Zumaya Cameroon Afro‑Asiatic (Chadic) ~2006
Gule Blue Nile State, Sudan Language isolate post‑1932

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c "UNESCO and the promotion of languages in Africa: cultural diversity and multilingualism". Archived from the original on 2025-03-27. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  2. ^ Muhammed, Joshua (2025-04-04). "Why Africa Must Act to Save Its Native Languages from Extinction". African Leadership Magazine. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  3. ^ a b "British and French educational legacies in Africa". CEPR. 2014-05-17. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  4. ^ Prof. wa Mberia, Kithaka (2014-09-01). "Death and Survival of African Languges in The 21st Century" (PDF). International Journal of Linguistics and Communication. 2 (3): 127–144.
  5. ^ Schyff, van der, G. (2017-06-01). "Championing equality: Evaluating the relationship between the state and religion in South Africa". NTKR Tijdschrift voor Recht en Religie (2017–1). doi:10.7590/ntkr_2017_004.
  6. ^ Ibrahim, J. & Gwandu, S. (2016). “Language policy on education in Nigeria: Challenges of multilingual education”. American Research Journal of English and Literature, 2(1).
  7. ^ Ibrahim, Jalaludeen; Gwandu, Sadiya A. (2016-08-01). "Language Policy on Education in Nigeria: Challenges of Multilingual Education and Future of the English Language". American Research Journal of English and Literature (ARJEL). 2 – via ResearchGate.
  8. ^ "How Colonialism Causes Language Endangerment". www.goethe.de. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  9. ^ Migge, Bettina; Léglise, Isabelle (2008-09-25), "10. Language and colonialism", Handbook of Language and Communication: Diversity and Change, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 299–332, doi:10.1515/9783110198539.2.299, ISBN 978-3-11-019853-9, retrieved 2025-07-04
  10. ^ Mugane, John M. (2022-02-20). "The story of how Swahili became Africa's most spoken language". The Conversation. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  11. ^ Alexander, Mary (2025-06-28). "The languages of South Africa". South Africa Gateway. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  12. ^ "7. National, official and other languages - Kenya Law Reform Commission (KLRC)". www.klrc.go.ke. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  13. ^ Constitution, Nigerian (2014-03-20). "Chapter 5. Part 1. Section 55. Languages". Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  14. ^ "Language Diversity and Language Policy in Education in Nigeria – A Critical Review - Mokslinės Leidybos Deimantas - Diamond Scientific Publishing". 2019-04-22. doi:10.33422/ictle.2019.03.161. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  15. ^ a b "Digital initiatives for Indigenous languages". Archived from the original on 2025-05-14. Retrieved 2025-07-07.
  16. ^ Wa Mberia, Kithaka (2014-01-01). "Death and Survival of African Languges in The 21st Century". International Journal of Linguistics and Communication. 2 (10) – via ResearchGate.
  17. ^ a b "How Colonialism Causes Language Endangerment". www.goethe.de. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  18. ^ "PANSALB COMMEMORATES INTERNATIONAL LITERACY DAY – 08 SEPTEMBER 2022 – PanSALB". www.pansalb.org. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  19. ^ Gordon, Augustine Emamuzo; Ogbu, Angela Ijeoma (2025). "Endangered Identity: Causes and Consequences of Dialects' Extinction in Nigeria". International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science: 1449–1457. doi:10.47772/ijriss.2025.903sedu0113. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  20. ^ "Nigeria | Global Information Society Watch". www.giswatch.org. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  21. ^ Osoba, Joseph Babasola; Alebiosu, Tajudeen Afolabi (2016). "Language Preference as a Precursor to Displacement and Extinction in Nigeria: The Roles of English Language and Nigerian Pidgin". Journal of Universal Language. 17 (2): 111–143. doi:10.22425/jul.2016.17.2.111. ISSN 2508-5344.
  22. ^ a b Alexander, Mary (2025-07-07). "The languages of South Africa". South Africa Gateway. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  23. ^ Hazeltine, Rachel (2013-01-01). "Language Policy and Education in Multilingual South Africa" (PDF). HOHONU. 11: 26–29.
  24. ^ "Khoisan languages | History, Characteristics & Classification | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  25. ^ "The Linton Panel & the San language | South African History Online". sahistory.org.za. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  26. ^ https://static.pmg.org.za/PanSALB_Strategic_Plan_2025-2030_Final.pdf
  27. ^ "Extinction of languages in East Africa worries Unesco". The EastAfrican. 2020-07-06. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  28. ^ Brenzinger, Matthias (1992-12-31), Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.), "Lexical retention in language shift: Yaaku/Mukogodo-Maasai and Elmolo/Elmolo-Samburu", Language Death, DE GRUYTER, pp. 213–254, doi:10.1515/9783110870602.213, ISBN 978-3-11-013404-9, retrieved 2025-07-08
  29. ^ "Only 7 People Still Speak This Kenyan Language, Now They Are Trying To Save It". Travel Noire. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  30. ^ Kala, Kuyanda (2025-04-11). "Preserving indigenous languages through Wikimedia". Nelson Mandela University. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  31. ^ Norton, B. & Tembe, J. (in press). “The African Storybook, multilingual literacy, and social change in Africa.”https://faculty.educ.ubc.ca/norton/Norton%20and%20Tembe%20in%20press.pdf
  32. ^ herdjeaf (2024-09-06). "8 Mobile Apps for Learning African Languages Anywhere - Kabod Group". Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  33. ^ Chason, Rachel (2024-05-13). "With French under fire, Mali uses AI to bring local language to students". The Washington Post.
  34. ^ Merz, Emily C.; Maskus, Elaine A.; Melvin, Samantha A.; He, Xiaofu; Noble, Kimberly G. (2020). "Socioeconomic Disparities in Language Input Are Associated With Children's Language-Related Brain Structure and Reading Skills". Child Development. 91 (3): 846–860. doi:10.1111/cdev.13239. ISSN 1467-8624. PMC 6765463. PMID 30919945.
  35. ^ "European languages are dominant in Africa | D+C - Development + Cooperation". www.dandc.eu. 2017-11-01. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  36. ^ Kari (2025-05-01). "Africa's Endangered Languages: Voices of Culture and Nature". Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  37. ^ https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages
  38. ^ "International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022 – 2032 - American Association For Applied Linguistics". www.aaal.org. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
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