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Dalmatian pelican

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Dalmatian pelican
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Pelecaniformes
Family: Pelecanidae
Genus: Pelecanus
Species:
P. crispus
Binomial name
Pelecanus crispus
Bruch, 1832[3]
Distribution map of Dalmatian pelican
  Breeding
  Resident
  Non-breeding
  Passage

The Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus), also known as the curly-headed pelican,[4] is the largest member of the pelican family[5] and among the heaviest flying birds in the world. With a wingspan typically ranging between 2.7 and 3.2 meters (8.9–10.5 feet),[6] it ranks among the largest soaring birds. These pelicans are known for their graceful flight and often travel in synchronized flocks.[7] With a range spanning across much of Central Eurasia, from the eastern Mediterranean in the west to the Taiwan Strait in the east, and from the Persian Gulf in the south to Siberia in the north, it is a short-to-medium-distance migrant between breeding and overwintering areas.[1]

As with other pelicans, its diet is mainly fish, and the males are larger than the females. Its curly nape feathers, grey legs and silvery-white plumage are distinguishing features, and the wings appear solid grey in flight. The adults acquire a drabber plumage in winter, however, making them look more similar to the great white pelican. Its harsh vocalizations become more pronounced during the mating season. It breeds across the Palearctic from southeastern Europe to Russia, India and China in swamps and shallow lakes. It usually returns to traditional breeding sites, where it is less social than other pelican species. Its nests are crude heaps of vegetation, which are placed on islands or dense mats of vegetation.

The species' numbers dramatically declined during the 20th century, partly due to land use, disturbance and poaching activities. The core population survives in Russia, but in its Mongolian range, it is critically endangered. Removal of power lines to prevent bird strike or electrocution and constructing nesting platforms or rafts have reversed declines locally.

Taxonomy and evolution

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Original description

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In 1832, Carl Friedrich Bruch described the Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), naming it the "Curly-headed Pelican" (with crispus meaning "curly" in Latin)[note 1] and referring to it in German as „Krausköpfiger Pelekan".[3] He based his description on two wild-shot specimens: an adult female from Dalmatia and a likely younger bird from Cairo.[3] Bruch distinguished the species from P. onocrotalus by its fully feathered head, shorter webbing, and silkier plumage, noting that the curly crest appears in both juveniles and adults.[3]

Edward Lear's hand-colored lithograph of a Dalmatian Pelican (1837). Pencil and watercolor.

The first known illustration of the species was of the individual shot in Cairo and was created by the German naturalist and artist Heinrich von Kittlitz.[3] However, this illustration is not currently accessible to the public. A second and more widely known illustration appeared as a plate in The Birds of Europe by John Gould.[10] Remarkably, this artwork was produced by Edward Lear,[10] a renowned 19th-century artist and poet best known for his nonsense literature.

Relationship with the spot-billed pelican P. phillipensis

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Phylogenetic relationship of the Dalmatian pelican (P. cripus; in red), based on the phylogenetic structure.[11] The division between P. crispus and P. philippensis is emphasized by placing two images next to the phylogeny, exemplifying the morphological differences between them.

During the 20th century, some authors hypothesized that the Dalmatian pelican could be a northern subspecies of the spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), based on supposed minor morphological similarities.[12][13] However, this view appeared in only a few publications and has not been widely accepted by the scientific community.

Several lines of evidence support the recognition of P. crispus and P. philippensis as distinct species. First, their breeding ranges do not overlap: P. crispus is found across southeastern Europe and Central Asia, while P. philippensis is restricted to South and Southeast Asia.[14][1] They also differ markedly in nesting behavior—P. crispus nests on the ground, while P. philippensis nests colonially in trees, a relatively rare strategy among pelicans.[11] Furthermore, the two species exhibit differences in sexually selected traits: P. crispus develops a bright red gular pouch during the breeding season, whereas P. philippensis retains a pale pouch year-round and displays distinctive dark spots on the bill, which are absent in P. crispus and likely function in mate signaling.[4]

Evidence of behavioral reproductive isolation also comes from a captive mixed-species colony at the Berlin Zoo, where P. crispus and P. philippensis were housed together but did not interbreed, despite the presence of hybrid pairings among other pelican species.[15] Finally, a 2013 molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA confirmed that P. crispus and P. philippensis represent distinct evolutionary lineages.[11] The divergence between the two species has been estimated at around 0.7 million years ago, during the Chibanian (Middle Pleistocene).[11]

Proposed extinct subspecies

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In 1941, Soviet ornithologist P.V. Serebrovsky proposed the existence of an extinct fossil subspecies of the Dalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus palaeocrispus, based on Pleistocene remains found at the Binagadi tar pits in present-day Azerbaijan.[16] Nonetheless, the subspecies is not formally recognized by international taxonomic authorities.

Description

[edit]
Comparison of the median wingspans of pelican species overlapping with the Dalmatian pelican's distribution. The diagram illustrates the size difference between the Dalmatian pelican and other sympatric pelicans, highlighting its status as the largest pelican species. Median wingspans are based on field measurements and modern standardized guides.[17][18][19][20]

The Dalmatian pelican is the largest of all pelican species[5] and one of the heaviest flying birds in the world, with a body length of 1.6–1.8 m (5 ft 3 in–5 ft 11 in), a wingspan typically ranging between 2.7 and 3.2 m (8 ft 10 in–10 ft 6 in)[6][note 2] , and an average weight of about 11 kg (24 lb).[26]

The species is most easily recognized by its enormous bill, which typically measures between 37 and 45 cm (14.6–17.7 in) in length and includes a large pouch used for catching fish.[27] This makes it the bird species with the second longest bill, only surpassed by the Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus), whose bill length ranges from 34.6 to 50 cm (13.6–19.7 in).[28][29][note 3] During the breeding season, this pouch becomes a vivid orange-red, contrasting with the more subdued yellow or grey tones observed during the rest of the year.[32] The upper mandible remains greyish throughout, often with a slight orange tip.[32]

The Dalmatian pelican has silvery-white plumage, which may appear more grey or creamy, especially in winter.[33] A distinguishing feature is the presence of a shaggy crest of curly feathers on the nape and back of the head, giving the bird a notably unkempt appearance compared to the smooth-headed great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus).[34] The legs are dark grey, another feature that helps separate it from related species with pinkish legs.[32]

While generally a quiet species, the Dalmatian pelican may produce deep, guttural grunts, hisses, or barking sounds during the breeding season. Juveniles are overall greyer and duller in appearance, with less distinctive crests and darker plumage, but gradually acquire the characteristic silvery-white coloration as they mature.[32]

Chicks of the Dalmatian pelican at the Rostov Nature Reserve.

Distribution and habitat

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Historically, the Dalmatian pelican was far more widespread across Europe than it is today. Subfossil remains dating back to the Holocene climatic optimum, approximately 7400 to 5000 years BP have been found as far north as Denmark. Additional remains dated to 1900–600 BP have been uncovered in central Europe, the Netherlands, and Great Britain.[35] These finds suggest that the species once ranged across much of the continent during periods of warmer climate.

Present breeding colonies (orange) of the Dalmatian pelican[36] and the geographic position of the subfossil pelican records (blue).[35]

Currently, the Dalmatian pelican is widely distributed across southeastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, inhabiting large, open wetlands such as lakes, rivers, deltas, estuaries, and floodplains. Unlike the great white pelican, which remains mostly in lowlands, the Dalmatian pelican nests at various elevations and is more philopatric, typically returning to the same traditional breeding sites unless they become unsuitable due to disturbance or degradation.[34] During the non-breeding season, the Dalmatian pelican seeks out ice-free inland waters, such as large lakes in Europe or temporary wetlands known as jheels in India, which provide essential foraging and resting habitat.[34] As global temperatures rise and such habitats become more widely available or persist longer into the year, there is growing evidence that the species is gradually expanding its range, responding to increasingly favorable environmental conditions.[35]

Dalmatian pelicans swimming in coordination at the Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, India.

Current populations and breeding sites

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The global population of the Dalmatian pelican is estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals, with roughly 3,000 to 5,000 breeding pairs.[37] Although the species suffered dramatic declines during the 20th century, several strongholds remain. The largest known breeding colony is found at Small Prespa Lake, which is shared between Greece and Albania and supports around 1,600 pairs. Another significant population persists in the Danube Delta, with approximately 450 pairs recorded there.[37]

Dalmatian pelican flock in Lake Kerkini, Macedonia, Greece.

Russia now hosts the largest breeding population of the Dalmatian pelican, with estimates exceeding 3,000 pairs, representing about 70% of all breeding individuals worldwide.[37] In the southern Tyumen region of Russia, the only known breeding site is Lake Tenis, where Dalmatian pelicans nest on reed islets.[38] Other active breeding sites are scattered across southeastern Europe, including regions in Ukraine, North Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria—particularly the Srebarna Nature Reserve—and Albania, where Karavasta Lagoon serves as a key nesting site.[37] Although the species was considered extinct in Croatia since the 1950s, a lone Dalmatian pelican was observed there in 2011.[39]

Movements

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Dalmatian pelicans in flight at Lake Orestiada, Greece.

The Dalmatian pelican is a partial migrant, and its movement patterns vary significantly across its range. In Europe, many populations are dispersive rather than fully migratory, with individuals often remaining near their breeding sites year-round or making only short-distance movements to the Mediterranean basin in winter. For example, in the Danube Delta, birds typically arrive in March and leave by the end of August, reflecting a predictable seasonal pattern aligned with breeding and food availability.[40]

By contrast, populations in Asia undertake more substantial migrations. Pelicans breeding in southern Russia generally migrate to the central Middle East for the winter, with many wintering in wetlands across Iran and extending through the Indian subcontinent, reaching as far south as Sri Lanka and westward into Nepal and central India.[33] Mongolian-breeding birds follow a different route, traveling to the east coast of China, including areas around Hong Kong, to spend the winter months.[37]

The takeoff from water of the Dalmatian Pelican is energetic, requiring strong pushes with both feet and heavy flapping.

In flight, the Dalmatian pelican is striking: it soars with slow, powerful wingbeats, neck pulled back in a characteristic "S" shape similar to a heron. The wings are broad and pale greyish-white, with noticeable black tips on the primaries.[34] This bird often flies in synchronized groups, gliding gracefully and silently above lakes and wetlands.[33]

Takeoff from water is particularly energetic. The pelican requires strong pushes with both feet and heavy flapping of its broad wings to become airborne, especially when carrying a full pouch of fish.[33]


Behaviour

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Feeding ecology

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The Dalmatian Pelican feeds almost exclusively on fish across its range. Preferred prey species include common carp (Cyprinus carpio), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), common rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), European eels (Anguilla anguilla), and northern pike (Esox lucius), the latter taken at sizes up to 50 cm in length.[41] Other important prey species regionally include gobies (Gobius spp.) and endemic fish such as Alburnus belvica at Lake Mikri Prespa, Greece.[42] During the breeding season at Mikri Prespa, adults fed exclusively on Alburnus belvica, despite the availability of over 20 other fish species in the lake, including the more abundant common carp.[42] This dietary specialization is ecologically advantageous, as the extended spawning period of A. belvica (April–August) provides a reliable food source throughout the breeding season, including for late or replacement broods.[42]

Dalmatian pelican using his pouch to fish more than 1 kg (2.2 lb) of food a day.[20][41]

Earlier estimates based on Soviet observations suggested that adult Dalmatian pelicans could consume between 2.5 and 3 kilograms of fish per day,[43] although later field data and stomach analyses have indicated more typical daily consumption ranges of 1.2–1.5 kilograms.[20][41] The size of fish consumed varies widely depending on location and availability, with recorded prey ranging from as little as 3 grams up to 2,500 grams,[44] although more typically between 30 and 1,200 grams.[45][46] When feeding on smaller fish, Dalmatian pelicans have been observed increasing their consumption rate to meet energetic needs.[42]

At Lake Mikri Prespa, regurgitates from adult pelicans feeding chicks contained an average of 384 g of fish, with up to 29 individual fish per sample, primarily composed of Alburnus belvica.[42] The size of these prey items ranged from 52 to 153 mm, although some regurgitates included individuals as small as 44 mm and weighing just 0.57 g.[42] Lastly, fish consumed in some wetlands may carry nematodes (Contracaecum spp.), posing a potential parasitic infection risk to the pelicans.[42]

Foraging technique

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Dalmatian pelicans generally forage alone or in pairs or trios.[41] In some instances, they form loose cooperative groups, creating a semicircle to drive fish into shallows.[41] They often forage in deep waters (6–8 m), especially during early morning and late afternoon, swimming upright and occasionally plunging their heads to capture prey.[45] Nonetheless, in parts of Central Asia, Dalmatian pelicans have been observed foraging in shallow, clear waters with submerged vegetation, where they remain relatively still and capture fish by sight when they approach within striking distance.[46]

A short video of Dalmatian Pelicans being fed by boaters in Lake Kerkini.

Opportunistic feeding behavior has been documented, such as scavenging dead or dying fish during periods of low water or in drying wetlands.[41][46] At the Ili Delta and other sites, Dalmatian pelicans have also been observed semi-scavenging asphyxiated or dead fish, especially during autumn when water bodies dry out.[46]

During the breeding season, adults typically forage within one kilometer of the nest, in contrast to Great white pelicans, which may travel several tens of kilometers.[42] Young pelicans are initially fed a semi-digested fish paste regurgitated by adults during their first three days, but gradually shift to independent foraging, catching small prey such as sticklebacks by around 1.5 months of age.[46]

Interactions with other species

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An interesting aspect of Dalmatian pelican foraging behavior is their interaction with cormorants. In the Terek Delta and Volga-Caspian channel, Dalmatian pelicans have been recorded fishing in association with thousands of cormorants (Phalacrocorax spp.), capitalizing on the fish disturbed by the diving cormorants.[41] Moreover, opportunistic kleptoparasitism has been observed, with Dalmatian pelicans striking cormorants as they surface to steal their catch[44].

Great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) feed among Dalmatian pelicans, sometimes as competitors,[41][44] others as collaborators[45].

At Lake Mikri Prespa, Greece, coordinated foraging between Dalmatian pelicans and Great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) has been documented, where cormorants dive and pelicans rapidly swim forward to scoop fish near the surface disturbed by cormorant activity.[45] This may be explained by the scarcity of shallow feeding grounds, which forces both species to concentrate in deeper areas and potentially benefit from each other's hunting strategies.[45]

In Central Asian wetlands, Dalmatian pelicans have also been observed feeding communally with cormorants, gulls, grebes, and mergansers during mass movements of fry, particularly in autumn.[46]

Seasonal and geographic variations

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Seasonal and regional differences in diet have been recorded. At Lake Mikri Prespa, the primary prey during the breeding season was Alburnus belvica, a small endemic cyprinid fish.[42] In the Volga Delta, important prey species include the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), common bream (Abramis brama), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), common roach (Rutilus rutilus), blicca (Blicca bjoerkna), Neogobius spp., and Cobitis caspia.[44]

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio), one of the main preys of Dalmatian pelicans[44].

In Mediterranean lagoon systems such as Karavasta Lagoon (Albania) and coastal sites in Turkey, diets shift toward more marine-associated species. Here, Dalmatian pelicans feed primarily on European eels (Anguilla anguilla), Mugil spp., Bucchich's gobies (Gobius bucchichi), sand smelt (Atherina spp.), and occasionally on garfish (Belone belone).[47]

In shallow Mediterranean lagoons, such as Karavasta (Albania), food becomes increasingly difficult to catch during the hot season (May–September), which may reduce reproductive success due to nest abandonment or lower parental investment.[47] During the autumn, large congregations of Dalmatian pelicans at sites like the Terek Delta exploit seasonal movements of fry of species such as roach, ide, and perch.[41] In these periods, communal and opportunistic feeding strategies are especially pronounced.

In Central Asia, seasonal dietary shifts have been documented: in early spring, pelicans fed on dead fish likely killed by hypoxia under ice; in May–June, their diet was dominated by carp (800–1,500 g), tench, and golden ide; in July, large quantities of juvenile roach, perch, and golden ide were consumed; and by August, fledglings relied heavily on nine-spined stickleback.[46]

Ecological role

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In many parts of their range, Dalmatian pelicans are perceived by fishermen as competitors due to their consumption of commercially valuable fish. However, several studies suggest that their impact on fisheries is often overestimated and that they may, in fact, play a beneficial ecological role. In Romanian wetlands, pelicans have been observed consuming dead, weakened, or diseased fish—especially in shallow waters where fish often suffer from hypoxia or winter kill. This behavior may help prevent the spread of disease and improve the overall health of fish populations.[20] Further, Dalmatian pelicans are known to forage primarily in shallow, vegetated waters that are difficult for commercial fishermen to access, allowing them to exploit resources otherwise underused by humans.[20]

Breeding

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Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden

Among a highly social family in general, the Dalmatian pelican may have the least social inclinations. This species naturally nests in relatively small groups compared to most other pelican species and sometimes may even nest alone. However, small colonies are usually formed, which regularly include upwards of 250 pairs (especially historically). Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may mix in with colonies of great white pelicans.[34] Nesting sites selected are usually either islands in large bodies of water (typically lagoons or river deltas[33]) or dense mats of aquatic vegetation, such as extensive reedbeds of Phragmites and Typha. Due to its large size, this pelican often tramples the vegetation in the area surrounding its nest into the muddy substrate and thus nesting sites may become unsuitably muddy after around three years of usage.[37]

The nest is a moderately-sized pile of grass, reeds, sticks, and feathers, usually measuring about 1 m (3.3 ft) deep and 63 cm (25 in) across. Nests are usually located on or near the ground, often being placed on dense floating vegetation. Nests tend to be flimsy until cemented together by droppings. Breeding commences in March or April, about a month before the great white pelican breeds. The Dalmatian pelican lays a clutch of one to six eggs, with two eggs being the norm. Eggs weigh between 120 and 195 g (4.2 and 6.9 oz).[48] Incubation, which is split between both parents, lasts for 30 to 34 days. The chicks are born naked but soon sprout white down feathers. Aggressive behaviors between siblings are very rare and generally non-fatal. When the young are 6 to 7 weeks of age, the pelicans frequently gather in "pods". The offspring fledge at around 85 days and become independent at 100 to 105 days old. Nesting success relies on local environmental conditions, with anywhere from 58% to 100% of hatchlings successfully surviving to adulthood. Sexual maturity is thought to be obtained at three or four years of age.[34][49]

Predators

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Golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Iran.

Predation on Dalmatian pelicans is relatively poorly known despite the species' threatened status. Adult birds have no natural enemies and the nesting sites often insure limited nest predation, though carnivorous mammals which eat eggs and nestlings can access nests when water levels are low enough for them to cross, as has been recorded with wild boars (Sus scrofa) destroying nests in Bulgaria.[50] Golden jackals (Canis aureus) are also known to access and destroy nests when water levels are too low and the same is possibly true of other canids such as foxes, gray wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (C. l. familiaris), not to mention other predatory animals such as potentially Eurasian lynxes (Lynx lynx). Some eagles may attack pelicans at colonies, although this is not verified.[51][50][52][53][54] Large gulls are known to be virulent predators of Dalmatian pelican eggs in Russia, Albania and Turkey.[55][56]

Threats

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Throughout the 20th century, the Dalmatian pelican underwent a dramatic decline in numbers, becoming one of the most threatened pelican species. Habitat loss due to wetland drainage and land conversion is considered one of the primary drivers of this decline.[32]

Conflict with fisheries

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In some regions, conflict with fisheries has led to localized persecution of Dalmatian pelicans, which are occasionally shot by fishermen who perceive them as competitors for declining fish stocks.[38] While such killings tend to occur on a small scale, the perception that pelicans significantly deplete fish populations remains widespread in many fishing communities.[33][34] However, statistical comparisons have shown that the composition of pelican diet differs notably from fishery yields, suggesting only limited direct competition.[47] At Karavasta Lagoon in Albania, Dalmatian pelicans were estimated to consume between 13.7% and 16.5% of the mean fishery catch in 1992, and between 19.4% and 23.3% in 1993, although the methods and assumptions used in these calculations have been questioned.[47]

Poaching

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Dalmatian pelicans with fisherman at Qeshm, Iran.

Poaching represents an additional serious threat in parts of Asia, particularly in Mongolia. There, local hunters illegally kill pelicans to sell their bills, which are fashioned into pouches. These pelican bill pouches are highly valued; on a typical day in a Mongolian market, as many as 50 may be offered for sale, and their worth can be equivalent to a trade of ten horses and thirty sheep.[57] This level of exploitation has reduced the Mongolian population to fewer than 130 individuals, making the species critically endangered in that region.[57]

Power line collisions

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Electrocution is a frequent cause of death in areas where power lines cross known flight paths.[37] Efforts to reduce mortality from power lines have included marking dangerous lines with visual warnings and even dismantling some infrastructure near breeding colonies.

Tourism

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Human disturbance at breeding sites has also been a major factor. Like all pelicans, Dalmatian pelicans are extremely sensitive to disturbance; if approached or startled, adults may temporarily abandon their nests, exposing eggs and chicks to predation or fatal exposure to the elements.[34] In Greece, high levels of disturbance from recreational boating—particularly powerboats carrying tourists—have been linked to feeding disruptions, sometimes causing starvation and mortality in pelican populations.[34]

Conservation

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Water level management, habitat restoration, and public education programs have played vital roles in improving local conditions for breeding success.[37] However, conservation progress has been slower in parts of Asia, where poaching, shooting, and habitat destruction remain more pervasive and difficult to control.[57]

Kuşcenneti National Park, Turkey, showing rafts and platforms that allow pelicans to nest.

Floating rafts

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The Dalmatian pelican is protected under the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA), and several countries have launched national initiatives to protect and restore populations.[37] Artificial nesting platforms have been installed in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Romania, encouraging breeding where natural nest sites have been lost or degraded.[34] Additionally, floating rafts have been placed in wetlands in Greece and Bulgaria, providing secure nesting spots isolated from predators and human disturbance.[37]

Community conservation

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A moving example of community-driven conservation occurred in 2012, when extreme cold froze large sections of the Caspian Sea, threatening the survival of overwintering Dalmatian pelicans. Despite initial discouragement from local authorities, many residents took action, bringing fish and hand-feeding the birds to help them survive the harsh conditions.[58]

Notes

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  1. ^ The species epithet crispus, meaning "curly" or "wavy" in Latin, was assigned by Carl Friedrich Bruch in 1832, in reference to the Dalmatian pelican's ruffled nape feathers, especially prominent during the breeding season. While the feathers are not "curly" in the strict morphological sense—as defined in recent studies using parameters such as contour count, pitch, and stretch ratio in curled fibers[8]—the term crispus was likely a well-chosen epithet. Alternative Latin descriptors such as crinitus or capillatus would have implied long or hair-like plumage, which does not accurately describe the species. Thus, Bruch’s use of crispus reflects a balance between the aesthetic naturalist tradition of the early 19th century and the limitations of classical descriptive language available to taxonomists at the time.[9] The term is also scientifically reasonable, given other species named crispus—such as Chondrus crispus—that do not exhibit spiral curls but rather irregular or ruffled surfaces. Among avian species, truly curled feather morphologies occur in birds like the curl-crested aracari (Pteroglossus beauharnaesii) and the crested guineafowl (Guttera pucherani), in which the feather barbs themselves form spirals or crimped structures. Compared to those, the Dalmatian pelican's crest is better understood as irregular or tousled; however, crispus remains an appropriate descriptor when understood within the linguistic conventions and taxonomic practices of Bruch's time.
  2. ^ Field measurements conducted by Korodi-Gál (1962) on 12 wild individuals from the Danube Delta recorded wingspans ranging from 254 to 308 cm, with a median value around 294 cm.[21] Later sources, such as Seabirds: An Identification Guide (1983),[22] Birds of Europe (2008)[23] and Birds of the World (2020),[24] report larger wingspan figures of 310 to 345 cm, although these publications do not specify their measurement methods, and it is likely that such figures reflect stretched specimens or non-standardized protocols. More recently, the Collins Bird Guide (2023), and other bird guides,[25] which rely on measurements from museum skins and photographic evidence without artificially stretching the wings, reported a typical wingspan range of 270 to 320 cm.[6] While wingspans up to 345 cm cannot be entirely ruled out, the most reliable data based on standardized museum measurements and field observations suggest that the true wingspan of wild Dalmatian pelicans generally falls between 254 and 320 cm. Caution is therefore advised when interpreting the larger historical estimates.
  3. ^ This ranking refers to absolute bill length. If bill length relative to body size is considered, the sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) holds the record, as its bill can be longer than its body.[30][31]

References

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  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2018) [amended version of 2017 assessment]. "Pelecanus crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22697599A122838534. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22697599A122838534.en. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  2. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  3. ^ a b c d e Bruch, Carl Friedrich (1832). "Ornithologische Mittheilungen". Isis von Oken. 10: 1105–1111.
  4. ^ a b Johnsgard, Paul A. (1993). Cormorants, darters, and pelicans of the world. Washington London: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-1-56098-216-6.
  5. ^ a b Allen, Barbara (2019). Pelican. Animal. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78914-075-0.
  6. ^ a b c Svensson, Lars; Mullarney, Killian; Zetterström, Dan (2023). Collins Bird Guide. Translated by Christie, David A.; Svensson, Lars (3rd revised ed.). UK: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-854746-2.
  7. ^ Rewilding Danube Delta (2024-12-26). Pelican Way of Life: follow the journey of the Dalmatian pelican. Retrieved 2025-04-18 – via YouTube.
  8. ^ Gaines, Michelle A.; Rebenfeld, Laura; Mejia, Julian A. (2023). "Reimagining Hair Science: A New Approach to Classify Curly Hair Phenotypes via New Quantitative Geometrical, Structural, Mechanical Parameters". Accounts of Chemical Research. 56 (23): 2572–2582. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00740. PMC 10214132. PMID 37252682.
  9. ^ Ragazzini, Beatrice (2022). Terminological Choices in Scientific Naming: Historical, Cognitive, and Lexical Approaches to Zoological Nomenclature (PhD). University of Bologna. doi:10.48676/unibo/amsdottorato/11498.
  10. ^ a b Gould, Elizabeth; Gould, Elizabeth; Gould, John; Lear, Edward (1837). The Birds of Europe. Vol. v.5 (1837). London: Printed by R. and J.E. Taylor, pub. by the author.
  11. ^ a b c d Kennedy, Martyn; Taylor, Scott A.; Nádvorník, Petr; Spencer, Hamish G. (2013-01-01). "The phylogenetic relationships of the extant pelicans inferred from DNA sequence data". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 66 (1): 215–222. Bibcode:2013MolPE..66..215K. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.09.034. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 23059726.
  12. ^ Delacour, Jean; Delacour, Jean; Mayr, Ernst (1945-11-15). "Notes on the taxonomy of the birds of the Philippines". Zoologica. 30 (12): 105–117. doi:10.5962/p.210849.
  13. ^ Cottrell, G. William Jr; Greenway, James C.; Mayr, Ernst; Paynter, Raymond A.; Peters, James Lee; Traylor, Melvin A. (1979). Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William Jr (eds.). Check-list of birds of the world. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  14. ^ BirdLife International. (2017). "Pelecanus philippensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22697604A117970266. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22697604A117970266.en. Retrieved 15 April 2025.
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