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Medri Bahri

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Medri Bahri (Amharic: ምድሪ ባሕሪ, English: Land of the Sea) or Mereb Melash (Tigrinya: መረብ ምላሽ, English: Beyond the Mereb), also known as Baharanegash, Ma'ikele Bahr or Bambolo Melash was a kingdom[a] subordinate to the Ethiopian Empire ruled by the Bahr Negash. This kingdom or province was located north of the Mareb River and west of the Bur Province, in the Eritrean highlands (Kebassa) and some surrounding areas, mainly comprising the historical provinces of Hamasien and Seraye.[1][2]

History

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Main article: Beja Kingdoms

After the fall of the Aksumite Empire, Beja Kingdoms started appearing in the country north of the Mareb River to the Red Sea, which was known as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river).[3] Eritreans were some of the first East Africans to be converted to Islam in the 8th century AD, they founded their own independent Sultanate of Dahlak which controlled much of the Eritrean coastline. In 935 AD Massawa and Arkiko was reported by a contemporary source as being inhabited by Muslims. Thus it was clear that after the fall of Aksum, Muslims had controlled the area from the Eritrean coast to the Mareb River and were proselytizing the locals.[4][5] Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I was wary of Muslim power along the Red Sea coast and therefore campaigned against them in 1332 AD. The regions of Hamasien and Akele Guzai would fall under Ethiopian rule following this campaign. Through to today many Tigrinya people claim descent from the Beja, particularly the Balaw. It was later renamed as the Medri Bahri ("Land of the Sea", "Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia).[6] The entire coastal domain of Medri Bahri was under the Adal Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Badlay.[7][8]

1690 map of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) by Vincenzo Coronelli illustrating Midrabahr (Midri Bahri) in the northern part of Abyssinia.

According to historian Richard Pankhurst it was during the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 1433–1468) when the title Bahr Negash ("Ruler of the sea") appeared for the first time.[9] However, it also appears in an obscure land grant of the Zagwe King Tatadim, who ruled during the 11th century. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash as one of his seyyuman or "appointed ones".[10][11] Zara Yaqob's chronicle explains how he, after arriving to the region, put much effort into increasing the power of Bahr Negash, placing him above other local chiefs and eventually making him the sovereign of a territory covering the highlands of Hamasien and Seraye.[9][12] To strengthen the imperial presence in the area, Zara Yaqob also established a military colony consisting of Maya warriors from the south of his realm. These settlers were believed to have terrified the local population and it was said that the "earth trembled at their arrival" and the inhabitants "fled the country in fear".[9]

In the 1520s, Eritrea was visited by the Portuguese traveller and priest Francisco Alvares. The current Bahr Negash bore the name Dori and resided in Debarwa, a town on the very northern edge of the highlands. Dori was an uncle of Emperor Lebna Dengel, to whom he paid tribute.[13] These tributes were traditionally paid with horses and imported cloth and carpets.[14] Dori was said to wield considerable power, with his authority extending from the Hamasien highlands to the port of Hirgigo. He was also a promoter of Christianity, generously gifting the churches and monasteries everything they needed.[15] By the time of Alvares' visit, Dori was engaged in warfare against some Nubians after the latter had killed his son. The Nubians were known as robbers and generally had a rather bad reputation.[16] They originated somewhere five to six days away from Debarwa, possibly Taka (a historical province named after Jebel Taka near modern Kassala).[17][18]

During the Ethiopian-Adal War, the region was one of the last parts of the empire to be confronted by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi due to its location in the far north. The Bahr Negash Za-Wangel was killed fighting the Adalites in the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529. However it wasn’t until 1535 the forces of Imam Ahmad crossed the Mareb river into the region. The Adalite occupation was resisted bitterly by the local population, who killed the Adalite governor Vizer Addole and sent his head to the Emperor. The Emperor upon receiving it had drums beaten and flutes played, optimistically declaring that the fortunates of the war were soon turning. In response, an army led by Wazir Abbas and Abu Bakr Qatin marched into Seraye where they massacred the locals and pacified the region. The Imam's occupation of the coastal highlands resulted in considerable destruction and violence. In 1541 the Portuguese warrior Miguel de Castanhoso arrived in the region, he noted that the lands of the Bahr Negus was "depopulated through fears of the Moors", for "the inhabitants had taken refuge with their herds on a mountain." Many Christians upon seeing the Portuguese came out of their hiding with "crosses in their hands, in solemn procession, praying God for pity." The local monks informed the commander, Cristóvão da Gama, that their enemies had destroyed all their monasteries and churches. They called on da Gama to seek vengeance and many locals joined the Portuguese in their struggles against the Imam, most notably the Bahr Negash Yeshaq.[19][20]

19th century map of northern Abyssinia

After the death of Imam Ahmad in 1543, Emperor Gelawdewos immediately reestablished imperial suzerainty over the Eritrean highlands. In 1557 the Ottoman Turks conquered the port of Massawa and under Ozdemir Pasha led an expeditionary force inland where they occupied the town of Debarwa. The Turkish troops then built a large fort, but due to the local population's access to firearms, they were forced to retreat back to the coast. Around this time the Bahr Negash Yeshaq, a supporter of Gelawdewos, became very powerful due to the import of firearms through the coast. Although a ruler of a vassal state, Yeshaq would heavily involve himself in internal Ethiopian affairs. After the death of Gelawdewos he revolted and attempted to place one of his nephews on the throne, but was defeated by Emperor Menas. According to James Bruce, upon being defeated, the Bahr Negash "threw himself at the mercy of the Turks" and ceded Debarwa in exchange for their help.[21][22][14]

Yeshaq and his Turkish allies marched into Tembien to face the army of Emperor Sarsa Dengel, however this battle ended in disaster as the Bahr Negus was captured and then executed. Sarsa Dengel then proceeded to march into Debarwa where he captured large quantities of firearms and ordered the destruction of the Turkish fort.[19] This victory was of major importance as put an end to the hopes of the provincial nobility to achieve independence or autonomy from the Ethiopian Empire.[23] Sarsa Dengel, who was greatly angered by Yeshaq's treachery and arrogance, significantly reduced the Bahr Negash's status and the office was temporarily merged with that of the governor of Tigray. However, according to the chronicles of Emperor Susenyos I, during his reign he would revive the old tradition of appointing provincial rulers with the title of the Bahr Negash, appointing one by name of Amda Mikael to rule at least six localities north of the Mareb; Hamasien, Seraye, Akele Guzai, the Debarwa district, the Buri Peninsula, and the "country of the Sahos".[24]

Emperor Fasilides appointed his son-in-law, Hab Sellus of Hamasien, as the governor of a province known as Bambolo-Mellash, which included Mereb Melash and much of Tigray. However, he abused his wife so violently that she died, after which he would make his way to the Emperor's palace in Gondar to seek forgiveness. Upon arriving in the palace he addressed the Emperor, saying "Your Majesty, in your great magnanimity, gave me your daughter and appointed me; but when I wished to approach my wife in accordance with nature and the law she rejected my approach; whereupon I, incited by Satan, raised my hand and struck her; and she died as a result of my blow. Because of this misfortunate I stand before Your Majesty." Fasilides, fearing to alienate the people of Hamasien, decided to forgive his son-in-law, declaring that "You did to her what she deserved". But he significantly reduced his fiefdom to just Mereb Melash. Hab Sellus subsequently returned to Hamasien, and brought the entire region of Mereb Melash under his authority. He would later rule the province for the next 40 years.[25]

In November of 1769, the Scottish traveller James Bruce became acquainted with the Bahr Negash while staying in the village of Hadawi (near Segeneiti). He described the unnamed ruler as a "brave, but simple man" and a deputy of Ras Mikael Sehul, but he also considered the land to be a "barbarous and unhappy country." Bruce later revealed that the influence of the Bahr Negash had significantly declined due to the loss of Massawa and Hirgigo to the Turks, stating that it was formerly of great importance; "Before the Abyssinians lost the maritime district of Arkeeko, and the port of Masuah, the office of Baharnagash was one of the most important in the kingdom. It is now nearly a nominal one, under the governor of Tigre." He also reports that the district had only been recently incorporated into the province of Tigray by Ras Mikael Sehul with the use of "violence and oppression."[26][27][28] The Zemene Mesafint had a lasting demographic impact on Eritrea, with multiple previously predominantly Christian ethnic groups such as the Tigre people and Bilen being islamized by the Ottoman Empire and later Eyalet of Egypt due to a weak Ethiopian imperial presence,[29][30] and becoming Catholic through the proselytization of French missionaries. At the end of the Era of Princes, the Bilen were largely autonomous but accepted the suzerainty of the Christian governor of Hamasien. Many Bilen, however, later converted to Islam in response to Egyptian raids. During this period, Egyptian sources refer to the Bilen area as "Kustan" (from "kréstyan," meaning "Christian") and considered it a dependency of the Mudiriyah of Taka, conducting raids against them in 1850, 1854, 1862–63, and 1867. The Ethiopian warlord Dejazmach Wube Haile Maryam also led several devastating raids against the Bilen from 1844–1849. Facing increasing pressure in their borderland existence, the Bilen began seeking protection from external powers and changed their religious affiliations.[31]

Despite nominally being under the rule of various warlords, such as Wolde Selassie, Sabagadis Woldu and Wube Haile Maryam, the territories north of the Merab became more independent during the Zemene Mesafint and largely consisted of various local communities ruled by a council of village elders. According to the early 19th century missionary Samuel Gobat, the region was divided into fifteen petty districts all of whom were "entirely independent of the Ras of Tigre". Gobat noted the inhabitants were primarily Muslims and Christians, the Muslims he described as being a "mischievous race of men, who are exceedingly troublesome to travelers".[32][33] From the late 18th to mid 19th centuries, there was a long-standing rivalry between the rival Hazega and Tsazega villages. Ato Tewoldemedhin of Tsazega constantly fought to reduce his rivals to obedience; his son, Hailu was eventually forced to flee to Gondar to seek the support of Tewodros II. In 1860 he was reinstated as ruler of Hamasien and Seraye, but in Hazega he had to face another strong opponent: Woldemichael Solomon, who was able to defeat him and seize control of Hamasien by 1868.[34]

Ras Alula, the governor of Mereb Melash (1877–1889)

Mereb Melash would gain international significance during the reign of Emperor Yohannes IV when it was defended against Egyptian expansionism during the Egyptian–Ethiopian War. In December 1875, a local ruler of the province, Woldemichael Solomon, submitted to the Egyptians at Massawa. This allowed the Egyptians to occupy the entire province with minimal resistance and build a large fort at Gura. However, Ras Alula would defeat the Egyptians at the Battle of Gura, forcing them to withdraw from the province. Following this victory, Ras Alula was declared the governor of Mereb Melash and was authorized to crush the opposition in the province. Alula defeated the followers of Woldemichael Solomon and imprisoned him, but Bahta Hagos evaded capture and allied himself with the Egyptian garrison at Sanhit. In June 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed, which allowed the Ethiopians to gain free access to Massawa in exchange for the rescue of Egyptian garrisons besieged by the Mahdists. Alula tried to reach the Egyptians at Kassala, but as the Italians landed at Massawa and began their encroachment inland, Alula was forced to abandon this effort. Frustrated and distrustful of the local tribes, Alula allowed his men to massacre the Kunama and Nara tribes in November 1886. In January 1887, Alula attacked the Italians at Saati, but was beaten back with heavy losses. He subsequently ambushed an Italian battalion sent to reinforce Saati at the Battle of Dogali. In December 1889, Yohannes IV called Alula and his troops up to support him in his fight against the Mahdists, which allowed the Italians to march down from Massawa and seize all of Mereb Melash.[35][36]

Following the death of Yohannes at the Battle of Gallabat, Tigray was completely exhausted from decades of uninterrupted wars. It could no longer challenge the Italians to the north or the Amharas to the south. Menelik II was later recognized as the new emperor, thus cementing Shoan domination over Ethiopia. The loss of Mereb Melash was recognized by Menelik in the Treaty of Wuchale.[37]

Notes

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  1. ^ All of Ethiopia's provinces were semi-autonomous kingdoms ruled by negus in the same way.
    • Smidt, Wolbert (2012). "History, Historical Arguments and the Ethio‐Eritrean conflict: between xenophobic approaches and an ideology of unity" (PDF). Stichproben. 12 (22): 109–112.
    • Ryseck, Laura (2014). The search for national identity in postcolonial, multicommunal states: the cases of Eritrea and Lebanon,1941-1991 (PDF) (Thesis). The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 46.
    • Erlich, Haggai (2024-01-15). Greater Tigray and the Mysterious Magnetism of Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-776933-1.
    • "Analytical views on the cultural and spatialized narratives of Asmara". The African Metropolis. Routledge. 2017. ISBN 9781315157306.

References

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  1. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. p. 773.
  2. ^ G. Marcus, Harold (1994). A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780520925427.
  3. ^ Tamrat 1972, p. 74.
  4. ^ Tamrat 1977, pp. 121–122.
  5. ^ Pateman, Roy (1998). Eritrea Even the Stones are Burning. The Red Sea Press. p. 32. ISBN 9781569020579.
  6. ^ Daniel Kendie, The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.17-8.
  7. ^ Owens, Travis. BELEAGUERED MUSLIM FORTRESSES AND ETHIOPIAN IMPERIAL EXPANSION FROM THE 13TH TO THE 16TH CENTURY (PDF). NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL. p. 23. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 12, 2020.
  8. ^ Pouwels, Randall (31 March 2000). The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. p. 229. ISBN 9780821444610.
  9. ^ a b c Pankhurst 1997, p. 101.
  10. ^ Derat 2020, pp. 43–44.
  11. ^ Phillipson, David W. (2023). A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780197267870.
  12. ^ Connel & Killion 2011, p. 54.
  13. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 102-104.
  14. ^ a b Pankhurst 1997, p. 270.
  15. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 102-103.
  16. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 154-155.
  17. ^ Werner 2013, p. 149-150 & note 14. P. L. Shinnie suggests an origination from the area around Old Dongola, but could this region not be reached from Eritrea within five - six days of travelling time.
  18. ^ Connel & Killion 2011, p. 96.
  19. ^ a b Pankhurst 1997, p. 219.
  20. ^ Frederick A. Edwards (1905). The Conquest of Abyssinia pp.354.
  21. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 236.
  22. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History Of Ethiopian Towns. p. 68. ISBN 9783515032049.
  23. ^ Oliver, Ronald (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 546. ISBN 9780521204132.
  24. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 395.
  25. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 402.
  26. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 413.
  27. ^ Bruce, James. Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, In the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 and 1773 (PDF). p. 95.
  28. ^ Bruce, James (1860). Bruce's Travels and Adventures in Abyssinia (PDF). p. 72.
  29. ^ Miran, Jonathan (2005). "A Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea". Die Welt des Islams. 45 (2): 177–215. doi:10.1163/1570060054307534. JSTOR 1571280.
  30. ^ Smidt, Wolbert G. C. (2006-01-01). "Discussing ethnohistory: The Blin between periphery and international politics in the 19th century". Chroniques Yéménites (13). doi:10.4000/cy.1373. ISSN 1248-0568.
  31. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2003). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. p. 587.
  32. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 2: D-Ha. p. 359.
  33. ^ Gobat, Samuel. Journal of three years' residence in Abyssinia (PDF). p. 37.
  34. ^ Longrigg, Stephen H. (1945). Short History Of Eritrea. p. 100.
  35. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History of Ethiopian towns from the mid 19th century to 1935. Steiner. p. 143.
  36. ^ Erlikh, Haggai (1996). Ras Alula and the Scramble for Africa A Political Biography : Ethiopia & Eritrea, 1875-1897 (PDF). p. 34.
  37. ^ Caulk, Richard (2002). "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia (1876-1896). Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden. pp. 129, 215.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Sources

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Further reading

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  • d'Avray, Anthony (1996). Lords of the Red Sea. The History of a Red Sea Society from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Harrassowitz.

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