Maravi
Maravi empire malaŵí (Chichewa) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pre-1450–1891 | |||||||||||
 The Maravi Empire at its greatest extent in the 17th century. | |||||||||||
| Capital | Manthimba or Mankhamba | ||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Kalonga | |||||||||||
• pre-15th century | Chinkhole (first) | ||||||||||
• pre1608-1640s | Muzura | ||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||
• Adoption of kingship | pre-1450 | ||||||||||
• Defeat to Makewana's pre-Maravi | pre-1450 | ||||||||||
• Kaphiti and Lundu break away south | pre-1450 | ||||||||||
• Undi and Nyangu settle in Tete Province | ? | ||||||||||
• Kalonga Muzura conquers Lundu | 1622 | ||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1891 | ||||||||||
| Currency | Copper, chickens | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||||
Maravi was an empire which straddled the current borders of Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia, from at least the early 15th century. The Chewa language, also known as Nyanja, is the main language that emerged from the empire.
The Banda clan and other smaller ones arrived in Malawi from Katanga, DR Congo in the early second millennium, and are called the "pre-Maravi" by scholars. The Phiri clan adopted kingship and arrived in Malawi later, and are termed the "Maravi". The Maravi expanded via Kalonga (king) sending relatives to found new settlements however some broke away unilaterally; notable of these were Kaphiti and Lundu, and Nyangu and Undi.
At its greatest extent, the state included territory from the Tonga and Tumbuka people's areas in the north to the Lower Shire in the south, and as far west as the Luangwa and Zambezi river valleys. Maravi's rulers belonged to the Phiri clan and held the title Kalonga. They ruled from Manthimba, the secular/administrative capital, and were the driving force behind the state's establishment. Meanwhile, the matrilineal Banda clan, which traditionally provided healers, sages and metallurgists, took care of religious affairs from their capital Mankhamba near Ntakataka.
Name
[edit]The name Maravi is a Portuguese derivation on the word Malawi, which the Chewa had used to refer to themselves.[1]: 1 In Nyanja/Chichewa, malaŵí means "flames".[2][3] According to Samuel Josia Ntara's Mbiri ya Achewa (1944/5), "Malawi" referred to an area along Lake Malawi where a Chewa king and his people settled long ago.[1]: 15 Chewa tradition says when they first saw Lake Malawi from the highlands, it looked like a mirage or flames. Subsequently, the land between Lake Malombe and the Linthipe River was called Malawi, and they referred to themselves as Amalawi.[4]: 39
History
[edit]Origins
[edit]The Chewa have two competing traditions of origin. The first holds that Chiuta (God) created the Chewa and animals at Kaphirintiwa Hill, where there are patterns of seemingly human and animal footprints in the rock. Thus it holds that the Chewa have always inhabited their present homeland.[4]: 40–41 The second is in agreement with the most widely accepted models of the Bantu expansion, where most Chewa traditions hold that they migrated from Uluwa or Luba in Katanga, DR Congo to modern-day Malawi, and they are associated with Naviundu pottery in Katanga dated to the 4th century.[5]: 22, 32 The Banda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first, while the Phiri clan migrated later. Scholars use the name "Maravi" to refer to the Phiri, and "pre-Maravi" to refer to the Banda and others.[4]: 37–39
According to tradition, when the pre-Maravi reached Malawi (thought by scholars to have been in the early second millennium[a]),[6]: 173 they found a pygmy people (called Akafula, Abatwa, or Amwandionerakuti) who they fought a battle against (near Mankhamba) and drove south across the Zambezi River. They are said to have also met agriculturalists, called BaKatanga, BaPule, or BaLenda, with archaeological research indicating Malawi was inhabited by agriculturalists from the 3rd century CE. This group likely intermarried with the Chewa and was absorbed. The pre-Maravi settled at Msinja, below the Dzalanyama range and near Kaphirintiwa Hill which, likely following the discovery of the patterns of footprints, became the society's ritual centre with a kachisi (rainmaking shrine). Msinja had good agricultural conditions, with good quality soil and lots of water. Makewana, head of the Banda clan and priestess, held the most authority. Scholars such as Jan Vansina have characterised the pre-Maravi as a state, where Makewana, as leader, appointed Matsano (spirit wives) to hill-top shrines, of which there was a hierarchy with Makewana's Kaphirintiwa shrine considered the "mother" of shrines. While these figures specialised in ritual authority, they also held substantial secular authority, although Kamundi (of the Mbewe clan) likely nominally held secular leadership.[4]: 43–46
After leaving Katanga in DR Congo, tradition has the Maravi stop at various places in the search for a place to settle. One of these was Choma, either a river in Zambia flowing into Lake Mweru which the first Kalonga (king) and his people was said to have crossed, a mountain in Mzimba District (thought to have a burial site of a Kalonga), or a place in southern Zambia. Clan names are said to have been created there. Prior to this settlement, the Maravi are said to have had the same female ritual leadership as the pre-Maravi. According to tradition, they met an Arab trader named "Hassan Bin Ali" (possibly al-Hassan ibn Suliman of Kilwa or representatives of him) who convinced them to have him as their first king. However he died before he could be initiated, interpreted as divine intervention against enthroning a foreigner. Instead, Chinkhole was appointed the first Kalonga and religiosity shifted to the veneration of rulers. Chinkhole died and was succeeded by Chidzonzi. Possibly due to lack of land for their growing population, the Maravi left Choma. Another stop was Chewa Hill, where they are said to have derived their endonym from, however scholars have alternative theories on the word's origin.[4]: 48–50
The Maravi finally reached Msinje, where they found the pre-Maravi led by Makewana. Kalonga aimed to destroy the pre-Maravi's political organisation by attacking the shrine on Kaphirintiwa Hill, however the shrine was difficult to reach and fiercely defended. In his defeat, Kalonga accepted Makewana's ritual authority (taking her secular authority in the process), and the Banda clan would provide Kalonga's principal wife (Mwali). The Chewa continued their migration, stopping at Mawere a Nyangu for a long time (which featured two hills likened to Nyangu's breasts, who was Kalonga's mother or sister and head of the Phiri clan). A dispute arose around the practise of dark magic, and mwavi (a poisonous drink) was distributed in order to kill the culprit, however many innocent people died. This caused a dispute between Changamire (Kalonga's brother) and Kaphiti, as Kaphiti and Lundu (both relatives of Kalonga) were thought to be the culprits. Possibly after a succession dispute, Kaphiti and Lundu broke away to the south to establish their own kingdoms. Kalonga sent Changamire south (as he intended to migrate north) to expand the state and found new settlements.[7]: 56, 60–61 After their population outgrew the land at Mawere a Nyangu, they finally moved onto Msangu wa Machete, which was near the Nadzipulu River (in Dedza District) and Lake Malawi. According to tradition, the Banda built their village called "Mankhamba" and the Phiri built theirs called "Malawi".[4]: 51–53 Archaeological research indicates Mankhamba was settled (likely by the pre-Maravi) between the 12th and 14th centuries, and the Maravi were very likely present there circa 1450.[6]: 173 Scholars disagree about whether Mankhamba or Manthimba was Kalonga's capital. Subsequently it became their new homeland.[4]: 51–53
Expansion and apogee
[edit]The empire was expanded via Kalonga sending his sons and family members to found new settlements and giving them emblems of office (such as an iron stool), as he had done at Mawere a Nyangu with Changamire. One of these to leave was Undi (Kalonga's uncle), reportedly due to his distaste of Mankhamba and following a succession dispute, and a dispute with Kalonga around dinner customs (a clash between political seniority and familial seniority). Undi was popular in the royal court, and when he left many people followed him, including Nyangu (traditionally responsible for bearing future Kalongas). He stopped at Makewana's Msinje before settling at Mano in Mozambique's Tete Province. Nyangu's accompaniment meant Undi could nominate succession candidates, and Mwali's role became more significant, giving Kalonga's counsellors (who were all Banda, the clan Mwali had to come from) more power. At Mano Undi expanded his influence towards Msinje, reportedly to such levels he also could appoint Makewana's successors. Chulu was either sent north by Kalonga or left Undi, and settled in Kasungu District. By the end of the 17th century, Chulu had been replaced by Mwase, traditionally an elephant hunter who had rid the community of dangerous animals and ended local conflicts.[7]: 55, 58–61
A son of Kalonga, Mkadzila of the Mwale clan, left Mankhamba to settle in Salima District. Traditions on Mkanda Mbewe, possibly another son of Kalonga, differ, likely influenced by interactions with invaders in the 19th century. The first tradition says Mkanda was more important than Undi, saying that Undi walked while Mkanda was carried in a hammock, however other traditions say this was because of an injury. Some traditions say Mkanda was sent to Bunda, and later Kasungu. Accordingly he left after a dispute with Mwase and settled in Mchinji after defeating Akafula warriors, only making contact with Undi after. However traditions from Undi's area say Mkanda was sent to Mchinji by Undi, only becoming independent later. Kalonga's power and wealth grew as relatives sent him ivory as tribute, which was processed at Mankhamba.[7]: 62–64
Kaphiti and Lundu had settled southwest either near Utale or the Wankurumadzi River in Mwanza-Neno districts. Kaphiti grew powerful, extending over the Lower Shire Valley, the Shire Highlands, Mulanje, and areas in modern-day Mozambique. Later, Lundu left to establish his own kingdom further south at Mbewe near Chiromo. His power grew to eclipse that of Kaphiti (who had disappeared by the 17th century) owing to wealth accumulated from trade along the Zambezi, and he extended his influence over the Lower Zambezi Valley.[7]: 57–58
The Maravi engaged in trade both locally and in the wider Indian Ocean trade. Muzura was a Kalonga revered in Portuguese records. Undi had the choice of the Kalonga's successors, and Muzura was originally part of Undi's royalty at Mano. He led workers on a Portuguese settler's plantation and was a renowned hunter. He came to power at a time when Gatsi Rusere, ruler of Mutapa from 1589-1623, claimed to have a military alliance with Kalonga,[8]: 186 and aided the Portuguese in defeating Gatsi Rusere's rivals in 1608. Muzura had a second capital in Mwanza-Neno closer to the Zambezi, and in 1616 provided hospitality to traveller Gaspar Bocarro who wrote the first historical account of Maravi. In 1622, Muzura defeated Lundu with the help of the Portuguese, becoming the undisputed ruler of the region. Under Muzura trade flourished and the Maravi grew very wealthy. In 1629 Muzura allied Mwenemutapa Kapararidze, Gatsi Rusere's successor, aiming to expel the Portuguese from Zambezia. However Muzura's attack on Quelimane was unsuccessful. Portuguese records in 1935 described Muzura as cunning and very powerful, and he passed away some time in the 1640s.[8]: 196–203
Decline
[edit]In the 18th and 19th centuries, the state declined as many clans grew more autonomous.[9] Maravi was invaded by Ngoni people fleeing the Mfecane[10] and was frequently raided by the neighboring Yao people (East Africa), selling captive Maravi on the slave markets of Kilwa and Zanzibar. In the 1860s, Islam was introduced into the region through contact with Swahili slave traders. The region was visited by David Livingstone and stations were set up by Protestant missionaries in 1873. A British consul was also sent there in 1883. David Livingstone visited Lake Nyasa in 1859, and other Protestant missionaries soon followed.
Government
[edit]The state was headed by Kalonga (king) of the Phiri clan. Authority existed in a hierarchy from village headman to group village headman, sub-chief, chief, senior chief, and paramount chief.[6]: 174 Other perpetual titles included Nyangu (reserved for either the Kalonga's mother or sister) and Mwali (Kalonga's main wife, chosen from the Banda clan). As a matrilocal society, Nyangu was head of the Phiri clan, and held the highest rank in the system, serving to check Kalonga's power. Makewana or Mangadzi was a female priestess and rainmaker, and also head of the Banda clan.[4]: 38, 51–52
The state had regional chiefs called Mwini Dziko ("owner of the land") who Kalonga would give a flywhisk, a sword or knife, and an iron stool. The Mwini Dziko delegated control to various sub-chiefs, and tribute was paid to Kalonga, often in the form of ivory.[7]: 55
Economy
[edit]The Maravi practised both pastoral and arable farming. They likely grew sorghum, millet, beans, groundnuts, dagga, and later cassava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and pumpkins which were introduced via trade with the Portuguese. Cotton became popular to grow, with varieties including the indigenous thonje kaja and the foreign thonje manga. Animals raised for food included cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and doves. Chickens were often used as a medium of exchange prior to the introduction of money. Hunting was done in large groups, antelope were a common target. Fishing was also popular.[6]: 179–183
Mankhamba specialised in metallurgy, and the Maravi were well-known to other groups and the Portuguese for their high quality iron tools. Other than use for agriculture, iron tools were also used in manufacturing various objects such as mortars, pestles, mats, baskets, drums, and canoes. Copper working was less common due to the lack of accessible copper deposits in the area. They engaged in other industries such as the production of cloth, wicker objects and pottery, and house construction. Cloth was made from bwazi (called dewere) or the bark of mombo trees (barkcloth), and cotton cloth which gradually replaced the others. There were two types of wicker ware, nkeka made from mgwalangwa, and mphasa made from bango. Pottery was commonly produced, and ceramic pots by women only. Ivory was also processed at Mankhamba.[6]: 175–178
The Maravi traded locally as well as engaging in the Indian Ocean trade, from which glass beads deriving from Europe and Asia were a popular import (Indian ones were much more popular and well-regarded than European ones). Copper objects were imported from modern-day Zambia and DR Congo, and copper was used as a medium of exchange. Due to the Maravi originating from the copper-rich area of Katanga, they were likely intimately familiar with copper workings. Chinese porcelain dating to the 16th century has been uncovered at Mankhamba. The Maravi exported iron tools, especially to the Portuguese, and cloth called machila, which was cheaper and often preferred to Indian cloth due to its durability. Salt from Lake Malawi was also traded to the interior. There were plenty of elephants in the area, and ivory was a popular trade good.[8]: 186–193
Society and culture
[edit]The Phiri clan held secular authority. The Banda clan were in charge of religious matters and held ritual authority, and were relied upon for the society's prosperity. Their head, priestess Makewana, was supported by Matsano (spirit wives) and members of the Mbewe clan. Kamundi was a senior member of the Mbewe clan who fulfilled the role of Thunga (a snake). The shrine at Kaphirintiwa Hill had a sacred pool, which, during rainmaking rituals, Makewana, according to tradition, would disappear into it for days on end when calling for rain. It also has a sacred drum (mbiriwiri) said to have been left by the Akafula when they were displaced. Only Tsang'oma of the Mwale clan was (and is) permitted to beat the drum, and drum playing was forbidden in Msinja. Hill-top shrines were largely inaccessible and could have been a place of refuge from invaders.[4]: 38, 45–46, 51 Mankhamba also had its own shrine (still in use) and sacred water pool, the latter of which was located 8 km (5 miles) away, to be used when group village headman deemed it necessary.[6]: 175
Regarding wicker ware, mphasa was used to cover the dead, while nkeka was used by women as seats for socialising. The two types of baskets, dengu/mtanga and lichero, were primarily used by women. The deepest basket, mseche, was used to store locally-made beer for celebrations and other village events. It was very common to smoke dagga and later tobacco, and smoking pipes were often decorated. Cattle were viewed as symbols of wealth and status. Women prepared plant foods while men prepared meats. Dogs were raised for hunting and companionship. Hunters provided sacrifices and carried charms and medicines for good luck and safety. Some jewellery uncovered by archaeological research included glass beads, copper rings, copper necklaces, and ivory bangles.[6]: 177–178, 180, 182
Notes
[edit]- ^ B. W. Smith argued the pre-Maravi reached Malawi in the 6th or 7th century, however further archaeological research hasn't supported this.
References
[edit]- ^ a b Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "Introduction". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ Conroy, Anne (2006), Conroy, Anne C.; Blackie, Malcolm J.; Whiteside, Alan; Malewezi, Justin C. (eds.), "The History of Development and Crisis in Malawi", Poverty, AIDS and Hunger: Breaking the Poverty Trap in Malawi, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 14–32, doi:10.1057/9780230627703_2, ISBN 978-0-230-62770-3, retrieved 2025-03-10
- ^ Mkandawire, Bonaventure (2010). "Ethnicity, Language, and Cultural Violence: Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda's Malawi, 1964-1994". The Society of Malawi Journal. 63 (1): 23–42. ISSN 0037-993X.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "The origins and migrations of the Chewa according to their oral traditions". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "The Bantu origins of the Chewa". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "The Chewa at Mankhamba". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ a b c d e Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "Expansion of the Chewa according to their oral traditions". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ a b c Juwayeyi, Yusuf M. (2020). "Long-distance trade and the rise of the Maravi Empire". Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84701-253-1.
- ^ "Maravi Confederacy | historical empire, Africa | Britannica".
- ^ "Axis Gallery". Archived from the original on 2006-01-09.
https://axis.gallery/exhibitions/nyau-masks/